Theses and Dissertations

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An Analysis of the Characteristics and Constraints of Small Holder Commercial Farmers in the Transkei Region, The Eastern Cape , South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-01) Nompozolo, Sivelile
The majority of the poor in South Africa are involved in subsistence Agriculture. An increase in productivity of the production of staple crops would be one direct way of increasing income of those households as well as increasing the per capita availability of staples. The increased availability of staples could also release resources that could be used· to purchase foodstuffs for a better balanced diet and therefore contribute to the improvement of the nutritional status of the household. The general problem of agricultural development may well be the most critical development issue in Transkei (Transkei Land Reform Research Group; 1995).
Efficiency of Small Scale Farmers and Land Reform in Zimbabwe
(University of Fort Hare, 2001-02) Mushunje, Abbyssinia
The role and significance of agriculture in the Zimbabwean economy needs no further emphasis. The whole economy depends ~n a stable agrarian growth. Agriculture accounts for 11-14 percent of the GDP and contributes 33 percent of formal employment. Currently the government of Zimbabwe is forging ahead with its controversial Land Reform Programme. This is intended to achieve higher agricultural output, higher labour absorption and a
Determinants of exchange rate volatility in South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Dewing, Desiree
The rand is observed to have experienced volatility in recent times, which was particularly pronounced during times of crises such as the East Asian Crisis of 1998 and the global financial crisis of 2008. The purpose of this study is to identify key macroeconomic variables that determine exchange rate volatility in South Africa, and to also determine the contribution of each of these variables to volatility. The study makes use of quarterly data from 1994 to 2014. Volatility is measured by means of a generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity approach. Estimation techniques employed include the Johansen Co-integration and vector error correction model. Impulse response and variance decomposition analysis revealed that interest rate differentials account for most of the variation in exchange rate volatility (36 percent), followed by inflation rate differentials (31 percent), economic growth (3.5 percent), trade openness (0.45 percent), money supply (0.25 percent) and government spending (0.03 percent). Interest rate differentials and inflation rate differentials thus account for 67 percent of the 71 percent variation in exchange rate volatility in South Africa, with trade openness, money supply and government spending all being of low levels of significance. The large impact that monetary variables have on exchange rate volatility implies that policymakers should maintain sound monetary policies, ensuring that large unwarranted increases in interest rates do not occur in the bid to control inflation.
The influence of aspirations on changing livelihood strategies in rural households of Ndabakazi villages in the Eastern Cape
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Zantsi, Siphe
The objective of this study is to explore the role of aspirations on changing livelihood strategies of rural households of Ndabakazi villages in the Eastern Cape. A sample of 80 respondents was chosen randomly for the household survey and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect the data. Focus group discussions were also used to supplement the household survey. The data was descriptively analysed using a triangulation method. The findings show that social grants, mainly pensions and non-farm employment, and child support grants are the major sources of income. The majority of the households own five hectares of land and more, in which they grow crops only in gardens adjacent to their homes. However, 29 percent do not produce any crops at all. Farming contributes a small portion to the household income. The choice of farming is more powerful than the external factors. Interest in farming is minimal and can be related to the declining farming activities; therefore, household aspirations have an influence on changing livelihood aspirations. In the case of the rural areas of Ndabakazi – as indeed in many other parts of South Africa - policies of rural development mostly take a top-down approach; as a result most of these policies do not become effective in achieving the intended outcome. Development practitioners should incorporate beneficiaries when planning so as to tailor the development initiatives with the aspirations of local people for them to be effect and achieve intended goals thus a bottom-up approach. The notion that rural household farming activities have declined because they lack inputs, farming implements other necessary support is not always true. Some households are not interested in farming and they cannot be forced.
Productionn of indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) and their contribution to household food security : evidence from Coffee Bay, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Mayekiso, Anele
There is high level of agreement on the relevance of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables (ILVs) in complementing household food security. Despite the significant level of agreement and several nutritional and health benefits associated with ILVs, farmers have opted not to include them in their farming systems, thus seriously affecting production volumes and their availability on the market. With the emerging interest in linking biodiversity to food security in the face of climate change and potential nutritional and health benefits connected to ILVs, there is a need to appraise why many farmers have opted not to include ILVs in their farming systems. Against this background, this study used cross-sectional survey data to estimate farmers` perceptions of, and commonly cultivated ILVs, factors that influence the participation of smallholder famers in the production of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables and its contribution to household food security]. With regard to farmers` perceptions of ILVs, descriptive results reveal that a majority of the people from the study area share positive perceptions with respect to ILVs. Regression estimates for determinants of participation indicate that the production of ILVs is primarily conditioned by shared perceptions and institutional factors rather than the socio-economic attributes of farmers. Public policies that address the institutional framework (extension, credit, market and social networks) in favour of ILVs are more likely to promote production. Also, more research on the documentation and benefits of ILVs, supported by investments targeting educational campaigns towards promoting positive attitudes and dispelling fears and myths surrounding ILVs, will further promote production. With reference to the contribution of ILVs to food security, descriptive results indicate that participation in the production of ILVs leads to a higher HDDS and a lower HFIAS. Regression estimates further revealed that participation positively contributes to a higher HDDS and a lower HFIAS, suggesting that households who participate in the production of ILVs are more likely to be food secure than non-participants. Therefore, participation in the production of ILVs has significant potential to address household food security.
Effectiveness of commodity pricing along the pork value chain in Zimbabwe : a case of Mashonaland Central Province
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Ngarava, Saul
The main objective of this study was to give a reflection of the pricing strategies, articulate organizational attitudes; feelings and behaviour regarding these strategies and how they all influence value creation within agribusinesses in the Zimbabwean pork industry. The research hypothesis is that the particular pricing objectives, strategies and policies utilised have an indirect influence on how organizations create value. Specifically, the research sought to determine influence of marketing in value creation, establish influence of price in marketing mix, ascertain pricing strategies, determine influence of attitudes, feelings and behaviours and measure pricing efficiency. Utilising interview-administered-questionnaires, the study sought responses from strata of producers, abattoirs and retailers in Mashonaland Central Province of Zimbabwe totalling a sample size of 226 respondents. The study utilised a cross sectional survey research design and quantitative research methods. The study utilised correlation analysis, ANOVA analysis, MANOVA analysis, multiple regression analysis and marketing margin analysis in establishing correlations, mean differences, influences and efficiencies in pricing. The study found out that marketing is not an influential value creating activity within the pork industry at p < 0.05. Price was also not the most influential marketing mix component within the industry. Most industry players were utilising formula prices, pursuing profit oriented pricing objectives through a one price policy, aiming for a low penetration price level policy, with no discount policy and managing a profit to cost ratio of between 0 percent and 4 percent. The most significant feeling was of being indifferent to a price change as it is offset by changes in units sold. Attitudes of industry players disregarding pricing mechanisms as long as it covers costs of production as well as substitute products determining prices were significant in influencing pricing objectives. Pricing within the industry was inefficient. The study recommends leveraging on the most influential industry value creating activity, which is production and processing, to take advantage of the myopic pricing objectives, lack of discount policy and avoiding substitutes. Also recommended is leveraging on the most influential industry marketing mix component, which is the product, to take advantage of lack of premium pricing, inefficient pricing and avoiding substitutes. Evading the low profit to cost ratio in the industry through utilising price flexibility policies and vertically integrating were also recommended.
Effectiveness of irrigation water management institutions in Zimbabwe: a new institutional economics theory approach
(University of Fort Hare, 2013) Nhundu, Kenneth
Water policymakers around the world currently face a challenging task of managing water resources that have deteriorated due to overuse or mismanagement and Zimbabwe is not spared in this challenge. The neo-classical economics approach is limited in its approach to water management and is increasingly being questioned on its ability to provide answers to the many economic problems and issues in low- as well as high-income countries. As such, there is scope for alternative, multi-dimensional approaches. The New Institutional Economics (NIE) tradition offers one such alternative and provides an exciting and challenging new paradigm. The NIE can provide an alternative and more holistic approach to agricultural water resources management. Institutions do structure economic forces and play an important role in expanding human choice, a fundamental goal of economic development. However, when considering agricultural water management, formal institutions tend to overshadow the local informal ones, although the latter guide the day-to-day interactions on water use. A study was carried out to evaluate how the formal water management institutions and the informal institutional arrangements influence irrigation water management in Mashonaland East Province in Zimbabwe. The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness and institution-performance linkages of the irrigation water institutions, with more emphasis on the effectiveness of formal and informal institutions in dealing with efficient irrigation water management. The NIE emphasises the need to focus, alongside formal institutions, on social institutions such as cultural norms and behavioural attitudes towards agricultural water resources. Therefore, this thesis presents the application of the NIE analytical framework to the problems of agricultural water resources management. The descriptive results of the study revealed the importance of both the formal and informal institutions in managing water resources, in particular, water law provisions to promote private sector participation, influence of other policies on the water policy, capacity to administer water resources and impact of private sector participation on water administration burden. However, most of the variables were either non-existent or non-effective to assist in the management of water resources. With regards to the role and significance of irrigation water management institutions in the management of water resources, the research found significant relationship between the formal- and informal institutions and their components. Notably was the significance relationship between the informal institutions and water law, policy and administration, with t-statistic values of 0.173, 0.314 and 0.279 respectively, which were all significant and positive at the 10% significance level. This suggests a clear relationship between the informal institutions and the formal institution, implying policy-makers cannot afford to ignore the informal institution when they are dealing with water management institutions. The study concludes that the interplay mechanisms between the formal and informal water institutions such water law, policy administration as well as norms, ideas and incentives do promote effective institutional interplay and may serve to overcome coordination problems of irrigation water management. Moreover, it is expected that institutional interplay will improve over time resulting in sustainable irrigation water management. The study concludes that informal water management institutions work together with the formal water management arrangements and should not be simply overlooked. In addition, future water irrigation management objectives in Zimbabwe must prioritise irrigation water development and management institutions in communal, small-scale commercial, and resettlement areas, both new and old schemes. Although markets were not under the scope of the study, they play a crucial role in poverty alleviation and rural livelihood improvement as they provide an arena in which agricultural produce is traded, and different services to the water sector are provided, and interactions with the wider economy, takes place. As such, there is need to open markets to new water users among communal, small-scale commercial and resettlement farmers and there is need for the government, private sector and non-governmental organisations to actively intervene and promote the engagement of new water users with markets. The study therefore recommends that the formal and informal institutions should be amalgamated to bring forth a real integrated irrigation water resource management framework. Water management practitioners, governments and private sector should not uncritically embrace the formal state-based institutions as a panacea for irrigation water management. The government, private sector, local water users and other stakeholders dialogue and agree on the basis, modality, policy and procedures for managing irrigation water resources.
The economics of Bt maize/yieldgard production : case of smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province
(University of Fort Hare, 2011) Mandikiana, Brian Washington
Maize is the staple food for most South Africans. This implies that any damage to the maize crop will affect food security of many South Africans. Although Eastern Cape Province is not a traditionally maize producing area, smallholder farmers in the province produce it mostly for subsistence purposes and some sell the surplus on the local market or use it to secure other good through barter trading. In South Africa, insect-resistant Bt maize/yieldgard has been used commercially for approximately 10 years now. Available impact studies on Bt maize reveal that, this technology is beneficial not only to farmers but consumers of maize products as well. Welfare gains as well as positive effects for human health are realised by both groups. Due to the costs and effectiveness associated with traditional and conventional maize stem borer control methods, Bt technology has the potential to be part of the solution. This thesis has attempted to investigate the economic viability of planting Bt maize seeds under smallholder farming conditions and identify factors as well as perceptions relating to attributes of Bt maize and to analyze the relationships between those perceptions and choices regarding use of Bt technology. Data was collected from 90 households who were selected using purposive sampling through the use of the snowball method. To collect data, a questionnaire was administered through face-to-face interviews. Gross margin analysis revealed that Bt maize is a more profitable option as compared to conventional maize seeds. Furthermore, econometric analyses, through use of the binomial regression model revealed that perceptions could be used to distinguish between users and non-users of Bt maize seed in the Eastern Cape Province. Results of inferential analysis indicate that the statistically significant variables at 5% level are gene erosion, quality and nutrition of products and food labels for Bt maize products perceptions. On the other hand, low expenses, seed market availability and farmers’ knowledge perceptions were significant at 10%. These findings suggest that an adjustment in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of Bt maize adoption. In view of the research findings, several policy proposals are suggested to support policy formulation. Key words: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize, yieldgard, smallholder farmers, perceptions, Flagstaff, gross margin analysis, binomial logistic regression model, Eastern Cape Province. Results of inferential analysis indicate that the statistically significant variables at 5% level are gene erosion, quality and nutrition of products and food labels for Bt maize products perceptions. On the other hand, low expenses, seed market availability and farmers’ knowledge perceptions were significant at 10%. These findings suggest that an adjustment in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of Bt maize adoption. In view of the research findings, several policy proposals are suggested to support policy formulation.
Economics of wetland cultivation in Zimbabwe: case study of Mashonaland East Province
(University of Fort Hare, 2009) Taruvinga, Amon
Wetlands are stocks of natural resources limited in supply, in the middle of unlimited human wants with multiple uses to society, presenting an economic problem in as far as their rational and sustainable use is concerned. To that end, conflicting recommendations have been forwarded regarding wetland cultivation as a possible land use across the globe and from within the same regions. On one extreme, wetland cultivation has been linked to degradation of wetlands with pure wetland conservation as the prescribed viable and sustainable land use option to society. Closer to reality, partial wetland conversion to crop land has been found compatible with wetland bio-diversity; implying that partial wetland cultivation is the prescribed wetland use option viable and sustainable to societies, a dictum mainly claimed by rural communities. With that conflicting background and based on the “Safe Minimum Standard” approach, a ban on wetland cultivation was maintained in several early environmental policies in Zimbabwe as a basis for legislative protection of wetlands, a position that is still legally binding in current statutes. Contrary to that, rural communities have responded by invading wetlands as a coping strategy in pursuit of the claimed values of wetland cultivation, further conflicting with standing policies. This scenario has managed to “lock” and is currently locking the claimed 1,28 million hectares of wetlands in Zimbabwe in a “legal-operational impasse”, at a cost to the entire nation since no meaningful investment is possible in wetlands when there is a legal conflict. Viability of wetland cultivation is therefore questionable, which warrants further investigation towards appraising wetland cultivation as a possible land use in rural areas. The connection between wetland cultivation and household food security also requires further exploration with the implicit goal of quantifying the claimed value attached to wetland cultivation. For purposes of regularising wetland cultivation in the event of a significant contribution of wetland cultivation to humanity, socio-economic factors influencing households to participate in wetland cultivation become necessary towards crafting of wetland cultivation transfer user rights. From a policy realm, such an analysis would provide an economic body of evidence to support the economic pillar under sustainable development ecology and the social pillar before a policy shift can be imagined. In an effort to appraise and explore the economic body of evidence as the economic pillar behind wetland cultivation from a sustainable development point of view amid conflicting recommendations, a case study of Mashonaland East Province in Zimbabwe was conducted to investigate the economics of wetland cultivation. Using Gross Margin Model, the Return per Dollar Variable Costs Invested and the Net Present Value approach, profitability of wetland cultivated crops was estimated. To further quantify the viability of wetland cultivation, the contribution of wetland cultivation to household food security was investigated using Kendall`s tau_b and Spearman`s rho non parametric correlation models for estimation of the systematic relationship that could exist. Using Cross Tabulation association and directional measures, the significance and direction of the systematic relationship postulated by correlation models was quantified. Building on these analyses the actual contribution of wetland cultivation to household food security was deduced using the Relative Risk Estimate – Odds Ratio approach. The study went on to estimate factors capable of influencing participation of households in wetland cultivation for purpose of policy guidance in the event of transfer of wetland cultivation user rights to communities using a Binary Logistic Regression model. The study concludes that wetland cultivation under rural setting was profitable, with a significant positive linear correlation to household food security to such an extent that wetland cultivators were more than twice food secure than non wetland cultivators at net food security level of households. Household head age, distance to wetland area and availability of wetland restrictive measures were chief factors capable of positively influencing participation of households in wetland cultivation. Household head education, amount of livestock units and household size were negatively related to participation. The study therefore calls for promotion of partial wetland cultivation from a rural setting through lifting of the technical ban in wetland cultivation as currently contained in the environmental legal framework of Zimbabwe. Caution however should be taken in crafting transfer user rights amid mixed perceptions from society and general scarcity of wetlands in relation to potential demand from society. The negative relationship between participation and household head education as well as the young households further casts a bleak future for wetland cultivation as a possible land use option in Zimbabwe. The study recommends targeted awareness campaigns to correct current mixed perceptions in societies regarding wetland cultivation and grouping of communities in wetland cultivation schemes to accommodate the potential shortage that can cause scramble and conflict.
The design, implementation and effects of the Nguni project in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2009) Somoro, Lovett Mophethe
The main objective of the study was to examine the design, implementation and effects of the Nguni project in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. This was seen as an important exercise considering that most agricultural development initiatives in rural communities fail or their success rate has been low. Agricultural development initiatives should provide economic and social benefits, failing which; most well-intentioned initiatives result in adverse effects to the society. Therefore, an examination of the design, implementation and effects of the Nguni project would go a long way in helping to highlight and rectify pit-falls in similar future intended projects. A sample survey was conducted in Amatole, OR Tambo, Chris Hani, and Alfred Nzo District Municipalities, using structured questionnaires, supplemented by observation. The questionnaire covered demographic, management and personal aspects in order to elicit respondents‟ values, aspirations, experiences and perceived constraints. The data were analysed using descriptive and quantitative statistics. The findings indicate that the project was well designed and implemented, though its performance suffered from some problems that can be corrected through proper involvement of all the institutions involved.
Livelihood strategies and food security for resettled smallholder tobacco and non-tobacco farmers: the case of Manicaland Province in Zimbabwe
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Mapfumo, Alexander
At the end of minority rule in 1980, Zimbabwe adopted the land reform programme to redistribute land to address the imbalances in land access while reducing population pressure in the communal areas, bring underutilised and idle land into full production use and improve the base for productive agriculture in the smallholder farming sector as a means to achieve economic development in the country (Musemwa, 2011). The broad objective of this study was to compare the livelihood strategies and food security situations of resettled smallholder tobacco and non-tobacco farmers and the factors that influence livelihood strategies and food security status for the smallholder farmers in the study areas. The study was conducted in Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe and the respondents were stratified into four groups. These were smallholder farmers resettled under A1 and A2 resettlement models as well as tobacco and non-tobacco smallholder farmers. The two models differ on how they were implemented and supported which might render them to have different livelihood strategies and food security status. A total of 300 respondents were surveyed, consisting of 120 tobacco and 180 non-tobacco farming households in Manicaland province. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the sampled households in Manicaland province were analysed using descriptive statistics. These statistics include gender of the household head, marital status, age of the household head, level of education, household size, farming activities, sources of income, livestock and asset ownership. Response variables that had an effect on the dependence of either tobacco or non-tobacco farming with all the other response variables were tested using the Chi-square test. The average age of the majority of smallholder farmers for both tobacco and non- tobacco farmers was generally high as it was in the range of 45-55 years. The majority of the sampled households in the resettled areas, A1 (86%) and A2 (88%) were male-headed. The results of this study also revealed that male headed households were 90.8 percent for tobacco and 84.4 percent for non-tobacco farmers. For the tobacco and non-tobacco resettled farmers, all the respondents had at least attained primary education which reveal that all farmers are functionally literate. The results also established that A2 farmers have exceptionally greater land holdings on average (9.067 hectares) than A1 smallholder farmers (average 3.060 hectares). A2 smallholder farmers have been found to produce more output of tobacco on average (6.584 tonnes) and maize (average 3.489 tonnes) whilst A1 smallholder farmers only managed an average of 2.657 tonnes of tobacco and 1.455 tonnes of maize on average. Smallholder farmers obtained income from selling their tobacco output as well as some of their excess food production. Apart from tobacco and non-tobacco output, sampled households in Manicaland province also obtained their income from hawking, selling liquor, salaries and wages, remittances and from pensions. In both A1 and A2 resettlement models, income from tobacco farming made substantial contributions, 43.6 percent and 55.7 percent respectively, to household income. Using the main sources of income by smallholder farmers in Manicaland province (tobacco farming household, non-tobacco farming household, household active in off- farm activities and wage-earner household), the study was able to establish the pattern of livelihood strategies in the area of study. Results indicate that the majority of the households were involved in tobacco and non-tobacco farming in both resettlement models (i.e. A1 and A2) as well as in all the sampled provinces (i.e. Makoni, Mutasa and Mutare rural) with a small percentage of households obtaining their main source of income from off-farm activities and formal employment. The study used a Multinomial Logit model to investigate factors affecting household livelihood generation. In the model, the dependent variables included four livelihood strategies while the explanatory variables included various household social-economic and institutional factors. The results obtained from the multinomial logistic regression model established that six variables (gender, household size, education, land size, access to inputs and access to credit) were found to be significant in determining the adoption of tobacco farming strategy in the study area up to less than 10% probability level. Smallholder farmers who did not adopt tobacco farming indicated that limited land size, shortage of labour as well as access to tobacco inputs were the major impediments to adoption of tobacco farming. Different livelihood strategies which were undertaken by smallholder farmers had a bearing on the food security status of the households. Results of the HDDS revealed that on average 82 percent of tobacco smallholder farmers were measured to be food secure whilst only 42 percent of non-tobacco farmers were food secure using the HDDS. Similar trends were observed from the descriptive statistics which showed that tobacco smallholder farmers consumed relatively greater percentage of nutritious food groups than non-tobacco smallholder farmers. This study revealed that households who diversified their livelihood strategies with the inclusion of tobacco farming were more food secure than those with non-tobacco farming. Results of the Binary logit regression model indicated that the significant factors which explain food security status for smallholder sampled households are farming activity, farm size, number of livestock, remittances, income and access to credit. Appropriate policies should be employed for resettled smallholder farmers to make positive exits from food insecurity through utilising more land effectively and indulging in high returns farming activities such as tobacco farming. The government and private partners such as Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) should therefore, channel more financial resources towards beneficiaries of land reform programme for them to be able to access inputs, credit facilities as well as better level of education.
Indigenous forests level of deforestation, forest dependency and factors determining willingness to participate in indigenous forest conservation: evidence from resettled farmers of Shamva, Zimbabwe
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Chivheya, Renias V
This study first explored the rate of forest deforestation in Shamva resettlement areas. It then identified and estimated the extent to which these resettled farmers depend on forest for their livelihoods. Evaluation of farmer perceptions on management issues and willingness to participate in indigenous forest conservation and the socio-economic and institutional factors which affect their willingness to participate were also done. Finally the study sought to identify incentives for forests conservation. The study was conducted in Shamva district in Mashonaland Central province. And the respondents were stratified into three groups: A1, A2 and Old resettlement models. The three models differ on how they were implemented and supported which might render them to have different deforestation rates, livelihood strategies and forest dependency. A total of 247 respondents were surveyed, consisting of 98 A1 farmers, 50 A2 farmers and 99 Old resettled farmers. The data was collected using GIS and remote sensing, structured questionnaire interviews and direct observation. The data was analysed using descriptive analysis, KAP analytic framework and binary logistic regression analysis.The land cover/changes results revealed that both deforestation and afforestation are taking place in Shamva resettlement. Woodland and bushland were decreasing, croplands were also decreasing. However woodland dense and grasslands were increasing. Deforestation was found to be as a result of the resettled farmers’ livelihood strategies which were found to be diverse and agriculture being dominant in all models. All the farmers depended on the forest but at varying levels of 19% for Old and 14% forA1 and 0.02% for A2 resettle farmers. 84% of the interviewed farmers however, indicated that they are willing to conserve forest with A1 farmers being the highest followed by A2 86% and lastly Old resettled farmers at 76.8%. Results of the binary regression model revealed that the significant factors which explain willingness to participate in indigenous forest conservation are age, marital status, education, gender, institution, culture and belief, employment and household size. The highest preferred incentive was the provision of free seedlings and the lowest was out grower scheme. The study recommends that GIS and remote sensing should be used to monitor deforestation, off farm projects be encouraged, exotic and indigenous trees be promoted and forest conservation education be promoted in resettlement areas.
Assessment of the performance of smallholder irrigated sugarcane farming in Maphumulo Municipality of KwaZulu-Natal Province
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Mdletshe, Sifiso Themba Clement
Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN) is mainly composed of small-scale farmers with low production capacity and knowledge (ISRADS, 2004). The general problem is the performance of smallholder irrigation schemes, issues that cause low productivity; whereas the cost of purchasing machinery is too high. In the rural areas the majority of the people are unemployed due to different reasons such as lack of employment opportunities available to them, lack of skill, and low level of education and mostly they are inexperienced. This study identifies theperformance of irrigation projects amongst smallholder sugarcane farmers in KwaZulu Natal in order to uplift the livelihood of smallholder sugarcane production as well as its sustainability.This was done on the basis of demographics, historical background and agricultural potential. This dissertation will discusses all approaches used to conduct the study. The dissertation also describes the analytical framework used in this study, namely: The research design, sampling, sample size, data, data collection procedures, model description and the specific analyses carried out to address the study objectives. The results of net values of irrigated and non-irrigated lands, the irrigating households indicated13% of sugar cane production per hector more than non-irrigators. It is clearly indicated that water/ irrigation can contribute on maximizing sugarcane yield and promotes sustainability. Improving the technology from small scale growers’ point of view, extension officers from different areas that produce sugarcane should be scheduled to attend Refresher Courses at SASRI to train them on different aspect of irrigation management and sugarcane production. When there is newly established technology, such as invention of a new variety of sugarcane that is resistant to drought and diseases. It would be more essential for agricultural development to encourage government investment on more irrigation schemes facilities.
Analysis of entrepreneurial behaviour of smallholder irrigation farmers: empirical evidence from Qamata irrigation scheme
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Chitsa, Gilbert
Albeit much effort having been put to review the performance trend of smallholder irrigation farmers in South Africa. However, there seems to be a paucity of information regarding the level of entrepreneurship on these farmers. Most research works on smallholder irrigation farmers have mainly focused on livelihoods trajectory providing a review on how the welfare of the rural poor has been transformed after the introduction of irrigation schemes. With most research evidence indicating a high degree of underperformance on most smallholder irrigation schemes, this research attempted to investigate the level of entrepreneurship among the small holder irrigation farmers. In order to achieve the main research objective, a sample of 110 farmers drawn from Qamata irrigation scheme was interviewed and each farmer’s performance on the nine components of entrepreneurship was assessed. The aspects assessed to determine the farmer’s entrepreneurial behaviour were: planning ability, risk taking, achievement motivation, leadership ability, Cosmo politeness, decision making, and innovativeness and farming knowledge. Basing on previous studies which indicated entrepreneurial behaviour to be influenced by several factors the study also analysed the determinants of entrepreneurship among the irrigation farmers and a binary logistic regression model was used to establish the connection between various independent variables and the farmers’ entrepreneurial performance given as a total score of the nine components. Though the findings of the study revealed a prevalently low level of entrepreneurship among the smallholder irrigation farmers on Qamata irrigation scheme, a high proportion of the respondent farmers (65.5% and 60.5%) showed to have a high degree of achievement motivation and decision making ability, respectively. The observed trend thus reflected that smallholder farmers have a potential to become entrepreneurs and are willing to succeed. The binary model results revealed that the prevailing land tenure system will be a strong determinant of the farmer’s level of entrepreneurship. Equally, levels of training in farming, motive for farming and information seeking tendency also proved to have a significant influence on the degree of farmer entrepreneurship. Based on the results of this study recommendations have thus been drawn on the need for policies and practices aimed at promoting entrepreneurship and not dependency among farmers. Key focus areas identified include: the need to revise the current land tenure system on irrigation schemes, intensify on entrepreneurship training for both farmers and extension officers and regular on-farm training on new technologies.
Effect of agricultural extension services on beneficiaries of the Nguni cattle project: the case of Ncera and Kwezana villages, Eastern Cape Province
(University of Fort Hare, 2013) Gwala, Lindokuhle
The study was conducted to determine the effect of agricultural extension services on beneficiaries of the Nguni Cattle project in Ncera and Kwezana villages, both in Nkonkobe local Municipality of the Eastern Cape Province. The objectives of this study were to determine the quality of extension services offered to the beneficiaries of the Nguni cattle project, relationship between extension officers and beneficiaries of the project, lastly was to determine communication strategies used by extension officers to communicate with the project beneficiaries. A total of 73 Nguni cattle project beneficiaries were interviewed. Semi- structured questionnaires were administered to the beneficiaries of the project who were willing to participate in the study. Xhosa speaking enumerators assisted in data collection. Focus group discussions were later carried out in both villages to determine effect of agricultural extension services on socio-economic status of the beneficiaries. The focus groups were divided into three groups of different ages and gender. The majority of the beneficiaries in the project were males (62.2 % Ncera and 75% Kwezana). There was an association between gender and extension services. Farmers depended on different sources of income. Old age pension and animal sales being the main contributing sources and also having a significant difference. The results of the study further revealed that the beneficiaries were faced with cattle production challenges, lack of extension support services being the main challenge. The results of the study indicated that the majority of beneficiaries had no access to extension services. Only 37.8% and 32.1 % at Ncera and Kwezana respectively reported that they had access to extension services. Although the latter is the case it was further explained by the beneficiaries that extension services offered to them were of poor quality due to poor communication strategies used to provide these services. Beneficiaries also reported the relationship between them and extension officers’ as poor. It was concluded that extension services had an effect on beneficiaries of the Nguni cattle project, largely based on the constraints they face on the project and limited access to extension services.
Analysis of marketing channels used by smallholder crop farmers in Vryheid (Abaqulusi) Municipality, Kwazulu-Natal
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Ntshangase, Muziwandile Gift
A total of 120 structured questionnaires were administered to analyse marketing channels used by smallholder crop farmers, at Abaqulusi Municipality, Vryheid and KwaZulu Natal Province, South Africa. Research methodology consisted of research design, sample frame, sampling procedure, data collection and data analysis which were used in the study. Descriptive statistics analysis was used, where frequencies and percentages of the variables were indicated. Variables which were measured included demographic socio-economic profile of survey household heads where age, marital status, educational level, occupation other than farming, land ownership, household size and gender of the household heads.The results show that the statistically significant variables (gender, household size) at 5% level positively affect smallholder crop farmers’ access to market information, expertise on grades and standards, availability of contractual agreements, existence of extensive social capital, availability of good market infrastructure, group participation and reliance on tradition. These findings suggest that an adjustment in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of participation in either formal or informal marketing, and hence their marketing channels. In the light of the foregoing research findings, several policy options were suggested. These include encouraging collective action, promotion of contract farming, ensuring the availability of market information to all farmers, encouraging value addition and investment in rural infrastructure.
Determinants of rural households’ diversification of livelihood strategies: a case of Intsika Yethu farmers of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
(2014) Munhenga, Daniel
Despite the continuing perceived economic centrality of agriculture in Intsika Yethu local municipality, rural households engage and pursue diverse non-farm livelihood activities to cope with diverse challenges and risks such as drought. This study assessed the importance of existing livelihood strategies adopted by the different rural households in Intsika Yethu; the link between households’ ownership and access to different ‘assets’; factors determining households’ ability to adopt certain livelihood strategies in the area. A survey of 120 households in six administrative areas and informal discussions with key informants were used to collect demographic data, data on socio-economic activities and factors determining the choice of livelihood strategies of the households in Intsika Yethu. The research findings indicated that only about 10% of the interviewed households relied solely on on-farm livelihood strategy only. Credit, remittances, market distance, affiliating to cooperatives, education and household size have a potential of influencing households to shift from on-farm livelihood strategy to other livelihood strategies. The government may need to promote programs and awareness on how households can diversify their livelihood strategies as a way of coping with economic constraints in the area.
Impact of agricultural development projects on poverty alleviation in Amajuba District Municipality (KZN)
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Mabaso, Siphesihle Merit
The study determined the impact of agricultural development projects on poverty alleviation at Amajuba district municipality. Data was drawn from 100 respondents; projects were purposively selected in line with the focus of projects members and non-projects members in Dannhauser under Amajuba District municipality to access and investigate the impact of agricultural development projects on poverty alleviation. The study presents the results of assessing those that are in groups and those that are working individually on agricultural production to alleviate poverty. The data was captured using a questionnaire which was administered through face-to-face interviews. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression model were used to analyse and compare the level of livelihood and variables between project and non-project members. The results show that project members are more productive than non-project members. Project members had more access to funding, training, markets and extension services compared to non-members. However, the results further showed that being a project member attracts some rewards which end up improving the living standards as well as alleviates the poverty levels of farmers, whereas working as an individual limits the farmer(s) from receiving reasonable government assistance such as funding and extension services delivery. The descriptive results indicated that members of most rural households were relatively old, married, literate but unemployed. Non-project members were dependent on remittances, social grants and pension funds because the farming strategy could not meet all their household needs. However, the major crops that were grown for income and food security to maintain their livelihoods include: maize, potatoes, onions, butternut, carrots, cabbage and dry beans. Factors that had significant influences on outcomes were extension services, grants, pension and remittances, land productivity, market accessibility, output difference and livelihood. The available opportunities for project members were access to land, funding, markets, infrastructure, inputs and support services from government institutions, as well as NGO’s.
Towards the modeling of indigenous poultry production in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa: characterization and extension evaluation for poverty reduction
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Yusuf, Shehu Folaranmi Gbolahan
Poverty remains a critical issue mostly in the rural South Africa. Various initiatives, policies and programs have been enacted by the government with attempting to reduce poverty at the national and provincial levels; poverty is yet to be abated. The target of the Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG1) of halving poverty by the year 2015 notwithstanding, poverty remains a threat to quality livelihoods. Agriculture has continued to be one of the pillars of government efforts to address poverty. However, in livestock production interventions, efforts of government had largely been on cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and exotic poultry with little attention being given to indigenous poultry production (IPP). This study explores the option of using IPP to address rural poverty by capitalizing on its minimal inputs while recognizing its prevalence in a variety of households. The study addresses the characterization of the IPP from the perspectives of housing, feeding, healthcare management, breeding and marketing options. Skill competencies of the indigenous poultry farmers (IPFs) and the Agricultural Development Technicians (ADTs) were examined. This study reviewed poultry models in different parts of the world with special attention to Africa. The human resource development program of the department of rural development and agrarian reform was discussed. The study employed the use of multi-methods approach, the quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. Descriptive statistical analysis, frequent count, percentage, means, standard deviation, chi-square, and principal component analysis was used in the quantitative data analysis while the “open social system” was used for the qualitative methodology. Findings revealed that IPFs face some challenges among which are, the poor housing that exposed the birds to inclement weather, predator attacks and stock theft, high mortality of chicks after hatching and expensive feed for the flock. The IPFs showed competencies in nine skill items that included ability to identify chicken predators (x=3.92) and high yielding chickens (x=3.79); control of predators (x=3.77); methods of using ethno veterinary drugs to treat chicken diseases and pests (x=3.72), and identify signs of diseases (x=3.69), among others. However, the ADTs did not show any competency in any of the 32 skills items. The principal component analysis with Varimax rotation was performed to ascertain the dimensionality of the measures. Six factors with eigen value of >1, which accounted for 77.317% were extracted, with each factor loading ranging from 0.523 to 0.93. Factor loading after rotation that emerged on the same component was described; as brooding, shelter and care of the chicks; predators and healthcare; hygiene and litter management; feeds and feeding stuff; and record keeping and marketing. The findings on the human resource development revealed that staff meetings were the most common method of capacity development. This was followed by in-service-training, formal study, workshop, and on the job training. The farmers’ field school and study tours were sparingly used. However, respondents were in favor of on-site training, staff meetings, formal study and in-service-training. The findings on the appropriate model suggest a theoretical indigenous poultry production model (IPPM) for the Eastern Cape Province (ECP). The “open social system” was used to develop a framework for an indigenous poultry cooperative society (to be known as Abafuyi Benkukhu Zemveli [ABZ]). This was meant to create a binding force for capacity development, a strong economic foundation through equity contributions, creation of marketing channels, and the development of a concept of ‘‘our own'' product in the market. Lastly, the study offers options for a training program that would accommodate the new initiatives, with a strong capacity development training approach. In this context, the study advocates for institutional support for the IPFs and the incorporation of indigenous poultry in the curriculum of the agricultural training programs at higher education institutions in South Africa.
Analysis of decision making in smallholder irrigation practice: a case study of Shiloh and Zanyokwe irrigation schemes in central Eastern Cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Agholor, Azikiwe Isaac
The study was conducted in Zanyokwe and Shiloh smallholder irrigation schemes located in Eastern Cape Province at Amathole and Chris Hani districts respectively. The choice of Zanyokwe and Shiloh smallholder irrigation scheme for this study is mainly supported by the fact that it had a substantial level of crop farming activity taking place especially at Zanyokwe while the Shiloh smallholder irrigation specialises dairy farming. The study examined decision making in smallholder irrigation practice with particular reference to Shiloh and Zanyokwe irrigation schemes. The general objective of the thesis was to analyse and model the determinants of SIS farmer’s decision making. The specific objectives of the study are as follows: to investigate the determinants of decision making among smallholder irrigation farmers; to examine the relationship between household and farm characteristics and institutional factors that explain decision making in smallholder irrigation scheme; assess the contribution of smallholder irrigation farming to household food security; and determine the production and marketing constraints of smallholder farmers‟ in both schemes. The theoretical and conceptual framework of the study gave a detailed discussion on the determinants of decision making of households. The theories used to understand household behaviour under different assumptions were variously discussed. Comprehensive illustrations of analytical framework of the study were also conceptualised. This study used a survey design, quantitative and qualitative research methodologies involving the use of questionnaires and focus group discussions. The data was coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). However, frequencies, percentages, bar and pie chart was also computed to describe the data. In consideration of the conceptual framework of the study, the agricultural household model was adopted to analyse smallholder farmer’s household decision making Twenty one explanatory variables identified in the conceptual framework of the study were discussed and some of these identified variables were incorporated into the model. The logistic regression model was used as a method of analysis because it can estimate the probability of a certain event occurring and it accommodates a lot of variables which can be ranked in order to illustrate which variables are significant. In the binary logistic model used, seven variables (farm experience, size of farmland, land rights/PTO, water sufficiency, farm asset, market information and production variation) out of the twelve predictor variables were found to have significant effect on influencing household decision making in Shiloh smallholder irrigation scheme, while five variables (gender, age, education, road distance and extension access) were not significant. Of the seven significant variables, four had positive signs (land rights/PTO, water sufficiency and market information); which means that an increase in either of these variables may be associated with an increase in household decision making in Shiloh. The other three predictor variables (farm experience, farm asset and product variation) had negative signs; this means an increase in either of these variables may be associated with a decrease in decision making. In Zanyokwe, six variables (farm experience, land rights/PTO, water sufficiency, farm asset, market information and production variation) out of the twelve predictor variables were found to have significant impact on influencing household decision making, while six variables (gender, age, education, size of farm land, road distance and extension access) were not significant. Of the six significant variables, two had positive signs (water sufficiency and farm asset); which means that an increase in either of these variables may be associated with an increase in household decision making in Zanyokwe. The other four predictor variables (farm experience, land rights/PTO, market information and product variation) had negative signs; this means an increase in either of these variables may be associated with a decrease in decision making. The study concludes that smallholder agriculture is essential for employment generation and food security of households. It is apparent that household food security will not be achieved without giving attention to the role played by smallholders‟ farmers in South Africa. It is pertinent to promulgate an efficient policy programme to address the diversity of smallholders‟ situations and identify the main constraints on investment. Therefore, all spheres of government, the private sector and NGOs should consider investment in smallholder agriculture through coordinated strategies and political support. This study also recommends that government should develop a strategic Smallholder Investment Plan which would improve investments in smallholder agriculture.

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