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Bone, liver and muscle mineral composition of Bontebok, Blesbok and Impala species harvested from different regions
(University of Fort Hare, 2021) Mpangele, Papama; Hoffman, L.C.; Marias, J.; Gajana, C.S.
The aim of the study was to investigate the mineral concentration of different game species, harvested in different regions. Bone, liver and muscle (Longissimus thoracis et lumborum) mineral composition of game animals (bontebok, Damaliscus pygargus pygargus; blesbok, Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi; and impala, Aepyceros melampus) were investigated. The muscle of all three animals were also analysed for their proximate (moisture, protein, lipid, ash) chemical composition. Impala animals were harvested in three different production systems (intensive, semi-extensive and extensive production systems) and in different regions (Castle de Wildt in Limpopo, South Africa; Mount Etjo in Otjozondjupa, Namibia; and Bredasdorp in Western Cape, South Africa) whilst bontebok and blesbok were harvested in the Western Cape from two different extensive farms. The proximate results for all species ranged between 73.68 – 75.72% moisture, 21.41 – 24.15% protein, 1.44 – 2.38% fat and 1.14 – 1.35% ash.
The mineral results showed significant concentrations of Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), Vanadium (V), Antimony (Sb), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Lead (Pb), and Silicon (Si) micro minerals in the rib of all three (bontebok, blesbok, and impala) species. Whilst the liver had high concentrations of Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Selenium (Se), Molybdenum (Mo), and Mercury (Hg) for all species. Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Arsenic (As), and Cadmium (Cd) concentrations differed in species and animal samples. Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn) were high in concentrations for all bontebok animal samples and were very low in the blesbok animal samples. However, impala had high levels of Fe and Zn in the rib. The results also showed that mineral concentrations differed in impala harvested in different production systems. Extensively reared impala from the Western Cape had high concentrations of Cr, Fe, Co, Zn, As, Se, Sr, Mo, Hg, and Si, whereas impala from an extensive system in Namibia had high concentrations of Al, V, Cr, Mn, As, Mo, Hg, and Pb. Impala reared under intensive conditions from Limpopo had high concentrations of V, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, As, and Ba, whereas the semiextensively reared impala from Limpopo had high concentrations of Mn, Fe, Zn, and Ba. The macro minerals from impala from Namibia were found to be very low concentrations as compared to those from Limpopo and the Western Cape. It can therefore, region/production system type does have an effect on the concentration of minerals in these animal samples.
Effects of bush encroachment intensity on herbaceous vegetation and soil quality indicators in semi-arid savannah rangelands of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2024-07) Mgushelo, Inga; Finca, A.; Mpendulo, C.T.; Tjelele, J.
Bush encroachment reduces herbaceous productivity and diversity, leading to a decline in grazing capacity and soil quality, thereby causing rangeland degradation. Therefore, this study set out to investigate the response of rangelands released from bush encroachment (specifically from Vachellia species), in the semi-arid savannah ecosystems of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. This was achieved by first examining the effects of bush thinning intensity on herbaceous vegetation and then assessing its impact on soil quality indicators. The research was conducted at the Napier Camp bush control experimental site within the University of Fort Hare Honey Dale Research Farm in Alice, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The bush control experimental trial covered two hectares and was divided into 15 sub-plots with bush thinning at five levels applied using a selective bush thinning method. The bush encroachment levels (BEL) replicated three times were 12% (Light), 25% (Moderate), 50% (Heavy), and 75% (Severe), with 100% as the Control (no thinning applied). Herbaceous species identification and mean point-to-tuft distance (estimate of basal cover) were conducted using the step point method, while the quadrat method was used to measure grass biomass and tuft density within sub-plots of different BELs. Soil chemical properties (i.e., organic carbon, total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and physical properties (dry bulk density, temperature, and moisture) were measured by collecting thirty composite soil samples randomly at each BEL under canopy and open zones. Moisture and temperature were measured directly at each subplot. Sixty soil samples were collected randomly from open and under canopy zones to determine soil dry bulk density. A total of 15 herbaceous species were identified including 13 perennial grasses and two species classified as 'Others' (Forb and Karroo species). Among the perennial grasses, nine were Increaser species and four were Decreaser species. Decreaser species increased while Increaser species declined with rising BELs. Highly nutritious species such as Panicum maximum and Panicum stafianum were more abundant at BELs ≥50%.
Statistical analyses were conducted using SAS, with ANOVA used to assess differences among BELs for each parameter, and the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was applied to compare and separate means where significant differences were detected. Grass biomass production (GBP) was significantly affected by BELs (p < 0.05), decreasing linearly with increasing BELs. GBP was significantly higher (p < 0.05) at 12% BELs (1533 kg/ha) than in other BELs, with 25%, 50%, and 75% BELs exhibiting similar GBP. Mean point-to-tuft distance (MPTD) increased proportionally (r² = 0.96) with BELs (p < 0.05), ranging from 2.3 to 4.7 cm from 12-100% BELs. Tuft density (TD) significantly decreased (r² = 0.75) with increasing BELs (p < 0.05), with 12% and 25% BELs having the highest densities (52 tufts/m² and 55 tufts/m²¸respectively). Soil data indicated fluctuating chemical and physical properties. Across BELs, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), and potassium (K) did not differ significantly (p > 0.05), except for soil phosphorus (P) (p < 0.05). The SOC, P, and K were similar between open and under canopy zones (|x̄1-x̄2| < LSD), while TN was significantly higher under the canopy zone (|x̄1-x̄2| > LSD). Soil dry bulk density, temperature, and moisture did not vary significantly with BELs (p > 0.05). However, dry bulk density and moisture were lower (|x̄1-x̄2| > LSD) under the canopy zone, while soil temperature remained similar (|x̄1-x̄2| < LSD) across treatments. Herbaceous vegetation responses to bush encroachment indicated reduced rangeland productivity and increased soil bareness. The results suggest that bush thinning between 12% and 25% BEL is necessary to restore herbaceous vegetation. The dominance of Decreaser species at lower BELs highlights the importance of controlled bush management in maintaining species composition. In terms of soil quality, most chemical and physical properties remained unaffected by bush encroachment levels, except for soil phosphorus. Improved total nitrogen under canopy zones suggests a positive effect of bush presence on nitrogen cycling. However, reduced soil bulk density and moisture under the canopy zone may have implications for water retention and soil stability in encroached areas.
Overall, individual bush species and bush thinning between 12% and 25% BEL had no detrimental effects on herbaceous vegetation and on some soil quality indicators, instead appeared beneficial for maintaining herbaceous cover and promoting desirable species. These findings highlight the need for targeted bush management strategies to sustain rangeland productivity while minimizing soil degradation.
Financial inclusion and economic growth in selected Sub-Saharan African (SSA) Countries
(University of Fort Hare, 2025) Delubom, Sesethu; Tsegaye, A; Hunter, D L
This study aimed at investigating the relation between financial inclusion and growth in selected sub-Saharan African (SSA) nations. The importance of the study stems from the growing recognition of financial inclusion as a key driver of inclusive economic development and poverty reduction, yet mixed empirical evidence on its actual impact, particularly on economic growth, calls for deeper investigation. The study employed panel data for the period 2011 to 2021 and engaged the Levin, Lin Chiu (LLC) and Im, Pesaran and Shin (IPS) unit root tests. The Unit root test results revealed mixed integration at orders I (0) and I (1). Sequel to this, the unit autoregressive distributed Lag (ARDL) co-integration estimation technique was used to test long-run dynamics and short-run estimates derived via the Error Correction Mechanism (ECM). The results indicate that there is variability in the impact of various financial sector development measures on growth within the SSA region. Financial inclusion, as measured by proxies for access, including the density of automated teller machines (ATMs) per 100,000 adults and bank branches in commercial banks (CBs) per 100,000 adults, positively influences economic growth. Conversely, financial inclusion, as measured by financial usage, as indicated by proxies such as the proportion of outstanding deposits in the Central Bank (CB) relative to Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and outstanding loans (CB) as a percentage of GDP, had a negative impact on economic growth. Granger causality testing further identified a unidirectional causality from economic growth to financial inclusion access measured through commercial banks (CB) per 100,000 adults. The findings from this study indicate that financial inclusion access increases and boosts economic growth, rather than financial inclusion usage. It is recommended that policies in the SSA region should encourage financial inclusion as a policy for inclusive growth. This can be facilitated by enhancing physical access to banking services, establishing and enforcing regulations that protect consumers and ensure the stability of financial institutions and by advancing digital financial services to broaden access. Additionally, aligning financial inclusion initiatives with wider development objectives can help maximise their impact on economic growth.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of manual clearing methods and reseeding techniques in restoring Pteronia incana encroached communal rangelands.
(University of Fort Hare, 2024) Makanya, Monelisi; Jama, K.; Mndela, M.
Pteronia incana encroachment is a form of land degradation, particularly in communal rangelands of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. This species displaces the herbaceous layer, thus reducing species diversity, plant cover, and rangeland productivity. Soil chemical properties determine the efficacy of herbaceous restoration by affecting plant growth. In efforts to revert the adverse effects of shrub encroachment, a study was conducted to assess the effects of topography and P. incana canopy cover on soil chemical properties, and the effectiveness of different restoration techniques on the success of herbaceous vegetation recovery, diversity and the nutritive value of grasses. A 25-m2 square plots having a 10m interspacing were marked based on shrub encroachment levels (SELs) namely: 1) open grasslands, 2) moderate, and 3) heavily encroached, with each SEL replicated three times in lower, middle and upper slopes in the north and south facing slope aspect. Soil samples were collected at a 20-cm depth at the four corners and the centre of plot, and then were analysed for N, P, K, OC, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Mn, pH, and total cations. Thereafter, the following restoration treatments were applied on each 10-m2 square plot: 1) uprooting and reseeding (UPR), 2) uprooting only (UPO), 3) cutting and reseeding (CR), 4) cutting only (CO), and 5) untreated control (CTL), with each treatment replicated three times in north and south slope aspects. The shrub was cleared either by uprooting or cutting and the cleared plots were reseeded with a grass mixture of Panicum maximum and Eragrostis curvula seeds. Five 0.25 m2 quadrats were sampled per plot in four corners and centre of each experimental plot. Afterwards the plants within the quadrat were identified, calculated and their diameters were measured using a standard ruler. The vegetative cover was visually estimated from the quadrats before harvesting the herbaceous plant biomass.
The collected data was used to determine plant density, richness and diversity. The nutritive value of reseeded grasses was analysed using an NIR spectrometer. The results revealed that the interactive effects of SEL and topography (p < 0.05) were only significant on Zn content with open grasslands in the upper slope position having two-fold higher Zn content than other encroachment levels in the same position. The interaction between the slope aspect and slope position (p < 0.05) significantly affected soil N, P, C, Mg, Zn, Mn pH, and cations. The N and OC in the lower slope in the north was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in the lower slope in the south aspect. The upper slope in the south aspect had significantly (p < 0.05) higher P and Ca than the middle slope. The Mg was higher on the lower slopes on both slope aspects, but the upper slope in the north had higher Mg than the upper slope in the south slope aspect. Zinc increased with slope position in the south aspect and the opposite was true for the north slope aspect. Slope position alone significantly affected Cu, with the upper slope having higher Cu content. Soils were slightly acidic, and total cations were higher on the south-facing slope.
The results on herbaceous recovery indicated that graminoid cover was highest in all treatments compared to the control, with CR exhibiting relatively higher cover in both north and south facing slopes. Restoration treatments independently affected plant density, richness and diversity, with these parameters being lowest in the control relative to other treatments. Slope aspect, treatment, and species interacted significantly (p = 0.029) on herbaceous biomass production (BP), with CO in the north aspect attaining two-fold higher BP of non reseeded grasses compared to other treatments. Responses of reseeded species varied by slope aspect, with P. maximum attaining two-fold higher BP in CR and UPR in the north than the south slope, whereas E. curvula had higher BP in CR in the south than the north slope. Furthermore, the results revealed that the nutritive value of grasses was significantly affected by the independent effect of slope aspect and species. The north-facing slope aspect had significantly (p < 0.05) higher CP, ash, Ca, and P than the south slope aspect, except for NDF. Similarly, P. maximum had significantly (p < 0.05) higher CP, ash, Ca, and P than E. curvula. CP had a positive significant (p < 0.05) relationship with Ca (r = 0.69) and P (r = 0.68). Although the energy and ADF were not significantly (p > 0.05) affected by slope aspect and species, they had a negative significant (p < 0.05) relationship with each other (r =-0.56). Overall, the study found that P. incana encroachment had no significant effect on soil chemical properties, with topography being the primary driver of variation in soil chemical properties. Shrub clearing proved beneficial in restoring plant diversity and density, regardless of the method, reseeding, and slope aspect. However, biomass, canopy cover, and basal cover responses were influenced by slope aspects. Thus, it is suggested that the decision on restoration method should be guided by herbaceous vegetation indicators of restoration priority.
Farmer's perception and prevalence of stock theft in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2024) Ndzungu, Kanya; Jaja, I.F.
The Eastern Cape Province is largely rural and agrarian and leading in most of South African livestock population. However, stock theft is a persistent challenge affecting both communal and commercial farmers in the province and posing a persistent limitation on livestock productivity with consequences. The impact of stock theft is far-reaching, including financial losses, emotional distress, and the ability to maintain sustainable agricultural practices. This study aimed to assess farmer's perception and prevalence of stock theft in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Two separate studies were conducted for this objective: the first study was to assess farmers' perceptions of stock theft in some districts of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. About 192 pre-tested questionnaires were collected from a sample of farmers in three districts in the province, namely, Amathole, OR Tambo and Sarah Baartman. According to the findings, stock theft is significantly more likely to occur during winter (P < 0.05). About 94.8% of farmers are in the communal farming sector in the three districts visited while 5.2% were in the commercial farming. Furthermore, 81.2% of the respondents believe that the government needs to do more to combat the spread of stock theft. This study also revealed that most respondents (88.6%) agree that branding and tattooing should be made available to all registered farmers. More than 50% believe that forensic deoxyribonucleic acid should not be used to control stock theft at crime scenes. This study highlights the farmers' perceptions and knowledge of stock theft to enable policymakers to develop targeted interventions and strategies. Policing strategy must be adaptive and technologydriven to fast-track detection, prevention, and reduction of stock theft crime.
The second objective of the study was to quantify the incidence and financial implications of stock theft in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The retrospective data from 2018 to 2024 stock theft was obtained from the provincial police stock theft unit, captured in Excel, transformed, and analysed using R 4.2.2 (R Core Team) version 2019 for statistical analysis. The Alfred Nzo district, with a total of 6427 (21.5%) reported cases, experienced the highest number of cases of stock theft reported amongst the eight districts of the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) from 2018 to 2024 financial year. Additionally, Alfred Nzo (27.4%) and Chris Hani (19.9%) lead the most unrecovered stolen animals compared to other districts. Cattle (42.5%) and sheep (28.7%) were the most unrecovered stolen animals under Alfred Nzo, followed by Chris Hani with cattle (24.6%) and Sheep (22.2%) and OR Tambo with cattle (14.4%) and sheep (25.9%) unrecovered of stolen animals. Sheep was the most stolen animal with a total number of 119 404 (57.1%) with a loss of 148m (11 041 352.97 USD), followed by goat being the second most species with a total number of 51 881(24.8%) with an estimated loss of 104m (5 790 695.00 USD). The overall loss of stolen animals is 715m (39 494 283.6 USD), with a high percentage loss of 93.1% of stolen and not recovered animals.
This study exposed a gap between the government, the South African Police Service, and farmers regarding the impact of stock theft in the Eastern Cape Province. Additionally, this study provides the outline and baseline of the widespread issue of stock theft in the province that has been ignored for too long. There is still a need for further research on strategies to prevent stock theft and an overview research of stock theft, especially in the Eastern Cape Province.