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Water scarcity and small-scale maize farming at the rural household level: A case study of Matatiele Local Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2024) Jikwana, Kholekile
The impact of water scarcity on maize production and other agricultural products at the rural household level can affect food security as many small-scale farmers depend mostly on their farm produce for sustenance. Unpredictable changes in rainfall are known to impact the water supply for irrigation purposes. Moreover, Matatiele, the area under investigation is prone to periods of droughts and floods. The researcher investigated the effects of water scarcity on small-scale maize farming at the rural household level in the Matatiele area. The research objectives were to: 1) Describe and discuss the average monthly rainfall in the Matatiele area between 1993 and 2022. 2) To determine the rural household’s food security status. 3) To determine the effect of water scarcity on rural small-scale crop farming and 4) to identify coping mechanisms on how to deal with water scarcity and food insecurity. A quantitative descriptive survey was employed to elicit information from participants. The rainfall pattern information was obtained from South African Weather Services, interpreted and described. A non-probable sampling technique was used to interview 140 household heads, using a structured questionnaire. The results demonstrated that the rainfall patterns in the Matatiele area vary from year-to-year. The lowest rainfall precipitation between 1993 and 2022 was 470.7 mm in 2015, and the highest was 1135 millimetres in 2022. The small-scale farmers experience moderate food security, as 67.9% of the participants stated that they never had to skip a meal, 70% never had to ration the size of meals, and 77.1% never went without food for a whole day. Most (82.9%) of the participants in this study reported that water access and water scarcity are their most considerable constraints when it comes to farming maize and other agricultural produce. They do not have access to municipal water, so most use private water sources such as boreholes. Only 18.6% use communal water sources, and only 5.7% use government-provided water sources. The variability impacts small-scale farmers, as they need long-term coping strategies to cope with the year-on-year variability yearly in rainfall patterns. They rely on shortterm strategies such as borrowing food from neighbours during hard times. Water scarcity is a reality and impacts small-scale farming at the rural household level negatively, which leads to food insecurity. A needs assessment is recommended to determine how the local government can assist small-scale farmers in dealing with the erratic rainfall pattern, which displays periods of droughts and floods. Long-term strategies are recommended, such as implementing water tanks and building dams and irrigation systems, to support small-scale farmers during periods of food insecurity.
Petrographic and Petrophysical Characterization of Sandstone Reservoir Rocks for CO₂ Geological Storage in the Bredasdorp Basin, offshore South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2024-11-26) Hoza, Siyamtanda; Magoba, M.
This study aimed to integrate the petrophysical and petrographic analyses to characterize the Lower Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs for CO2 geological storage in the Bredasdorp Basin offshore South Africa. These reservoirs are excellent for studying the potential CO2 storage, since they are depleted oil and gas reservoirs with vast exploration data available. Four wells intersecting the Lower Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs were selected for this study, namely E-AQ1, E-G2, F-A10, and F-A13. Dataset use for the study included wireline logs, geological well completion reports, 1393 conventional core analysis, 13 core samples, 16 thin section slides, and micromorphology images for 8 core samples. Interactive Petrophysics software was utilized to evaluate the petrophysical parameters. Gamma ray logs were used to identify and delineate the sandstone reservoirs above 800 m depth to determine the reservoirs' porosity, clay volume, water saturation, and permeability. Data from core samples and well logs were used to estimate the pore throat size and to compute storage and flow capacity. The thin-section petrography combined with the Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) was employed to assess the influence of clay minerals on reservoir characteristics. The average calculated values for volume of clay, effective porosity, water saturation, and permeability varied between 12.66 - 30.73 %, 9.37 - 13.6 %, 6.17 - 68.88 %, and 6.68 – 502 mD, respectively. E-AQ1 and E-G2 exhibited low porosity of less than 10 %, whereas F-A10 and F-A13 showed good porosity of more than 10 %. F A13 showed the highest permeability of 502.47 mD, while E-G2 showed the lowest value of 6.68 mD. E-G2 showed the highest clay volume at 30.73 %, while F-A13 showed the lowest value at 12.66 %. Furthermore, F-A10 showed the highest water saturation of 68.88 %, whereas well F-A13 showed the smallest value of 6.17 %. The pore throat radius revealed that F-A10 and F-A13 have a higher heterogeneity in the pore throat size distribution, and E-AQ1 and E-G2 showed the lowest heterogeneity, indicating that EAQ1 and E-G2 will have a consistent fluid flow when CO2 is injected. The storage and flow capacities ranged from 5.45 – 666.65 m and 12.43 – 9949.23 mD*m, respectively. Comparing the storage and flow capacities of E-G2, F-A10, and F-A13, E-G2 has the lowest storage capacity, and F-A10 has the highest. F-A13 has the lowest flow capacity, and F-A10 has the highest. The core description results for E-AQ1 showed a fine to medium-grained sandstone with glauconite, which is very calcareous. It has a calcite cement characterized by fracturing and tight cementation. E-G2 showed light grey, fine-grained sandstones, highly glauconitic, and visible bitumens. F-A10 showed medium to fine-grained, glauconitic, calcareous sandstones with better-preserved cross-bedding and heavily burrowed zones, indicating a high-energy depositional environment. F-A13 showed medium grey sandstones with varying grain sizes, visible pore spaces, and bioturbation, transitioning from fine-grained to medium-grained with depth. Thin section and SEM-EDS results show that the porosity for E-AQ1 was affected by quartz overgrowth and calcite cementation. E-G2 had carbonaceous material filling the pore spaces and compaction, thus affecting porosity. Feldspar overgrowth was observed from the intervals chosen for F-A10 and F-A13. Coarse grains were identified in F-A10, and they improved the overall porosity by creating larger spaces between particles. Glauconite was identified in all the wells. The most influential diagenetic processes impacting porosity, permeability, and water saturation included cementation (calcite and hematite), quartz and feldspar overgrowth, compaction, clay mineral authigenesis, and feldspar alteration. E-AQ1 showed poor reservoir quality due to quartz overgrowth reducing porosity and calcite cementation reducing permeability. On the other hand, F-A13 displayed a very porous sandstone reservoir containing smectite with a swelling nature, a needle-like illite, and an angular quartz grain, with calcite cementation and minimal compaction. The presence of clay minerals in the reservoir sands had a great impact on permeability and porosity. Based on the results and the criteria used, F-A10 and F-A13 are the most favourable reservoirs for CO2 storage due to their high porosity, permeability, storage and flow capacities, low volume of clay and water saturation and favourable mineralogical characteristics that enhance reservoir quality. The results from this study can help guide future CO₂ storage projects by offering a clear understanding of the reservoir quality and how well these sandstone reservoirs can hold and transport CO₂. By knowing more about factors like porosity, permeability, clay volume, and water saturation changes over time, this study can help choose the best areas for CO₂ injection and predict how CO₂ will move through the rocks. This information can also help evaluate other similar reservoirs for CO₂ storage, supporting efforts to safely store carbon in South Africa and contribute to the global climate change mitigation and the transition to a low-carbon future.
Rights, livelihoods, and low-income housing: A case study of Kwa-Nobuhle, Kariega
(University of Fort Hare, 2025-08) Maphosa, Nkosilinda; Bezuidenhout, Andries
The post-apartheid government’s housing program has failed to provide sufficient, strategically located houses for the urban low-income earner and to significantly alter the spatial legacy of apartheid. The very situations that the state attempted to address have been replicated due to structural flaws in its approach. On balance, formal low-cost housing settlements continue to be located on the margins of urban conglomerates. Nevertheless, access to low-income housing (physical capital, in the language of the sustainable livelihoods approach) allows beneficiaries the potential to leverage other livelihood strategies, such as renting out rooms or using housing as a site for running a small business. However, in the absence of access to jobs an over-reliance on welfare grants for survival limits the extent to which livelihood strategies linked only to housing access can improve their quality of life. The specific aim of the study was to critically identify the intersection that rights, livelihoods, and low-income housing have in Kwa- Nobuhle, Kariega. Extensive research has been done on low-income housing, but few studies link research on low-income housing to both rights and livelihoods. Also, there are no contemporary studies of housing in Kwa-Nobuhle in particular. At the theoretical level, to better understand the relationship between low-income housing, livelihoods, and rights, this study draws on two theories from development studies, namely the sustainable livelihoods approach and the rights-based approach. Methodologically, critical realism provided a viewpoint that highlighted how institutions impact human agency while acknowledging that people can act freely within these structural limitations. The study employed a mixed methods approach in which in-depth interviews, observations, and a survey were conducted specifically to understand how inadequate housing impacts economic stability, social well-being, and access to essential services. In-depth interviews with ten key informants, selected through purposive sampling, were conducted. In addition, a survey of one hundred households, selected through convenience sampling, was conducted. Qualitative data was analysed using thematic content analysis, and quantitative data was analysed descriptively using SPSS. The findings revealed that access to low-cost housing had some positive impacts on the livelihoods of residents. Respondents who benefited indicated they had access to physical capital, basic services, and better living conditions. Nevertheless, several factors limited the extent to the improvements in livelihoods, as well as the sustainability thereof. Housing delivery is marred by corruption, and houses have flaws. Unemployment is rife, and residents are dependent on government grants for survival. Some factors cited as contributing factors to housing problems include gender inequality, unemployment, lack of communication, fraud, and corrupt practices. Also, despite houses being built, the housing database is still growing. The research recommends a plethora of initiatives which could be implemented to improve housing quality and provision, livelihoods, and housing rights. These include stakeholder participation, post occupancy evaluation, adherence to good governance and a bottom-up approach to housing that could be initiated to improve which low-income housing may take.
Assessing the extent and impacts of illegal sand mining along the Wild Coast Zone of the Amathole District in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2024) Dandala, Mzikayise Colemand; Nel, W.; Kalumba, A.M.
Sand mining is widespread, and its practice is increasing in developing and developed nations. However, the increased demand for sand has led some communities to mine sand illegally. Illegal sand mining brings irreversible environmental damage, and the physical and environmental effects of sand mining have developed into crises that often result in changes in land use dynamics. The Wild Coast zone of South Africa is recognised as an international biodiversity hotspot. Therefore, assessing the extent and impacts of illegal sand mining in this biodiversity hotspot is crucial for guiding environmental planning. However, traditional methods for monitoring illegal sand mining are time-consuming and costly. This study
employed a monitoring and modelling spatiotemporal approach, which is non-destructive, costeffective, covers larger areas, and is a time-saving alternative to conventional methods. The research objectives were: (i) to evaluate the spatial and temporal trends of illegal sand mining (i.e., pit size) along the coastal zone from Kei River mouth to Lubanzi River mouth over the last 22 years (2000 – 2022) and (ii) to assess the impact of illegal sand mining activities on the landscape dynamics (i.e., land use change and vegetation cover change) in the study area. Aerial images and field surveys were used to assess the extent of illegal sand mining over the last few years. Additionally, 30-meter resolution images of Landsat from 2000 to 2022 were used to assess land cover and vegetation changes. The comprehensive analysis of illegal sand mining activities along the Eastern Cape coast from 2000 to 2022 has provided valuable insights into the escalating challenges of unauthorised extraction. The study identified a minimum of 24 illegal sand mining sites, with evidence indicating a significant growth in illegal sand mining activities over the observed period. The spatial extent of sand pits has expanded, reflecting the increasing demand for construction materials driven by rapid population growth. The physical damage caused by illegal sand mining was observed across most areas, with noticeable aftereffects such as the creation of sand pits and dumping. These findings underscore the urgency of addressing the drivers behind the growth of illegal sand mining, particularly the need for stronger legislation and law enforcement to curb unauthorised extraction. The assessment of the impact of illegal sand mining on landscape dynamics revealed significant changes in land use patterns, particularly in the conversion of vegetated lands to bare soil. The transition from other vegetation to bare soil highlights the early stages of environmental degradation resulting from sand mining activities. Additionally, the decline in forest and water areas underscores the loss of critical ecosystems along the coastal zone. This study highlights the pressing need for comprehensive regulatory measures and stakeholder collaboration to address the growing threat of illegal sand mining. By understanding sand mining activities' spatial and temporal trends and their impact on landscape dynamics, policymakers can develop targeted interventions to safeguard coastal ecosystems and promote sustainable development in the Eastern Cape region and beyond.
A situational awareness framework for mitigating health misinformation: A case for the COVID-19 vaccine
(University of Fort Hare, 2025-04) Manene, Sivile; Cilliers, Liezel
The rapid increase in social media usage during the COVID-19 pandemic created an environment for the rapid dissemination of health misinformation, contributing to public confusion and mistrust in health authorities. During the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Health Organization adopted the term 'infodemic' to describe the widespread dissemination of both accurate and incorrect health information, highlighting its impact on vaccine acceptance and public health outcomes. This study, therefore, aimed to develop a situational awareness framework to mitigate health misinformation on social media. This research explores how a situational awareness framework could mitigate the impact of health misinformation about the COVID-19 vaccine on social media users. The objectives were to determine how misinformation contributed to vaccine hesitancy, investigate existing strategies for combating misinformation on social media, and examine how situational awareness could help users identify and manage health-related misinformation. By addressing these areas, this study developed insights into enhancing public health communication and reducing the influence of information disorder. This study adopted a quantitative research approach grounded in a positivist philosophy. A survey questionnaire was used to collect data from a sample of 214 participants aged 18 to 35, selected through a non-probability convenience sampling technique. The questionnaire was distributed online, targeting young adult social media users. The data was analysed using SPSS and SmartPLS 4.0. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) with regression coefficients was applied to test the relationships between the scales and underlying variables. The results indicate that Perceived Susceptibility (PSU) (β = 0.189, p = 0.010), Perceived Severity (PSEV) (β = 0.288, p = 0.001), Health Motivation (HM) (β = 0.462, p = 0.000), Perceived Benefits (PBE) (β = 0.221, p = 0.020), and Cue to Action (CA) (β = 0.281, p = 0.000) significantly influenced Behavioural Intent (BI) to address COVID-19 vaccine misinformation. Self-efficacy (PSE) (β = -0.251, p = 0.008) had a negative effect, while Perceived Barriers (PBA) (β = -0.028, p = 0.647) did not significantly affect BI. This study developed a situational awareness framework to mitigate COVID-19 vaccine misinformation on social media. The findings reveal that perceived susceptibility, severity, health motivation, benefits, and cues to action significantly influence users' intention to address misinformation, while perceived barriers do not. The framework offers practical insights for public health authorities and social media platforms to enhance communication and real-time monitoring. Future research should expand its scope and validate its effectiveness across diverse contexts.