Theses And Dissertations

Permanent URI for this collectionhttp://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11837/180

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Voedingstres Indikatore as Maastaf van Voedingspeil in Bokke (Capra hircus hircus)
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-12) Landman, Christiaan Mauritz Murray
An in-depth study was launched to evaluate the potential use of nutritional stress indicators in goats. Several blood metabolites, body characteristics and production functions were evaluated under different levels of nutrition (fasting, maintenance and ad lib), nutrient requirements (non-pregnant, pregnant and lactating) and environmental conditions (penned and free ranging). Generally the results were disappointing and with the exception of the fasting experiment the reaction time [(P < 0.05) differences between groups] for all 13 indicators was never shorter than seven weeks. Very few cases were observed where all the individuals within a group responded uniformly to the treatments. It was also not possible to confirm a clear linear relationship between the measured indicators and the level of feeding. This study shows that none of the measured indicators satisfied the predetermined levels of sensitivity or repeatability and can therefore not be recommended for use under free ranging conditions.
An Evaluation of the Oesophageal Fistula Valve Technique
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-05) Lebopa, Cornelia Kedidimetse
The oesophageal fistula valve technique (Raats & Clarke‚ 1992) was evaluated in terms of its ability to reflect the daily forage selection pattern of free ranging goats over a period ot four seasons and two Stocking rates. During the. evaluation, the oesophageal fistula valve technique was compared to the standard oesophageal fistula bag technique and observed feeding behaviour. Comparisons were in terms of: (i) proportion of grass or bush.(% DM) in both the fistula bag and valve samples compared against the time spent grazing or browsing i (% of active feeding period); (ii) the changes in chemical composition (CP, NDF, ADF and ADL) of the bag samples versus that of valve samples and; (iii) diurnal changes in feeding behaviour and plant species selection pattern of free-ranging goats based on observations.
Range condition assessment to document the extent of degradation on selected semi-arid rangelands of the Eastern cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Ndandani, Akhona
The assessment of communal rangelands and Nature Reserve capability is crucial in order to prevent resource degradation and facilitate adaptive management practice. This study was conducted to document the extent of land degradation in three selected semi-arid rangelands of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. These comprised the Great Fish River Nature Reserve, Glenmore and Ndwayana communal rangelands. Each rangeland was demarcated into two homogenous vegetation units (HVU’s) toplands, bottomlands and a benchmark site. Botanical composition (woody and herbaceous), aboveground biomass production, soil seed bank composition and density and soil micro nutrients (Cu, Mn, Zn) and macro nutrients (N, P, K, OC, Mg, Ca, Na) were determined. Twenty two (22) perennial grass species and some forbs were recorded in all the HVU’s. In general the grass species composition consisted of 59 percent pioneer (Increaser II) species, 36.4 percent mesophytes (Decreaser) species and the remaining were 4.54 percent sub-climax/climax (Increaser I) species. The grazing value of the grass species was: High 41 percent, Moderate 14 percent and Low45 percent. Six dominant grass species and were recorded, comprising mainly of Increaser species in all the HVU’s, (except for Digitaria eriantha). Biomass production in the benchmark (2700 kg/ha) was significantly higher (p<0.05) in summer than all the other HVU’s, but in winter (1715 kg/ha) it was not significantly different (p>0.05) from the bottomlands of the Great Fish RNR. There was an increasing trend in mean basal cover from the benchmark to Ndwayana toplands (0.0-15.75cm). The results showed that the benchmark had higher dense cover (0.0 to 1.5cm) than all of the other HVU’s. There were 27 woody species, where 56 percent were acceptable to browsers while 44 percent were not acceptable. Of these woody plants 41 percent had thorns or spines whilst 59 percent had no thorns or spines. Ptaeroxylon obliquum (14 percent) was the most dominant species and the least dominant being Pappea capensis (0.05 percent) respectively.Glenmore had significantly higher (p<0.05) bush density (1181.25 and 1337.5Trees/ha) and TE (1069 TE/ha) than all the other HVU’s. Soil samples from each sample plot were collected with an auger from a 20 cm layer with the use of a 0.25m2 quadrat distributed within the four 100 m transects in each sample plot. The samples were analyzed for N, P, K, OC, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu and Mn and pH using photospectrometer. There were significant differences (p<0.05 in the concentration levels of all the macro nutrients N, OC, P, K, Ca, and Na (except Mg) in different HVU’s. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in the soil content of Cu, Mn, Zn and pH between the different HVU’s. In the soil seed bank experiment, a total of 21 species found (9 grasses, 9 forbs and 3 sedges). Most of the grass species identified in the seed bank were mainly found in the Benchmark site while the rest of the homogenous vegetation units were dominated by either forbs or sedges. Seed bank grass composition comprised 67 percent perennial and 33 percent annual species. Of these grasses, 29 percent were unpalatable, 48 percent of low, 14 percent high and 9 percent moderately palatability. Pseudognaphalium undulataum (14.59 percent ) was the most abundant species, followed by Medicago laciniata (8.44 percent), Hypertelis bowkeriana (8.41 percent) and Sutera campulata (8.36 percent) with Tragus species (0.23 percent) followed by Panicum stapfianum (0.5 percent) being the least abundant species. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in the seed bank density between the Great Fish RNR and the communal areas of Glenmore and Ndwayana (both toplands and bottomlands). Similarities between the seed bank and the above ground vegetation were tested using Sorensen’s Similarity Index. The coefficients were as follows; Glenmore toplands (40 percent), Glenmore bottomlands (37.5 percent), Ndwayana toplands (25 percent), Ndwayana bottomlands (28.57 percent), Great Fish RNR toplands and bottomlands were (0 percent) with the benchmark comprising of (80 percent). Rangaland degradation is found in all the study sitesand it was more in the communal areas than in the Great Fish RNR excluding the benchmark.
The classification of beef, pork and mutton carcasses in a selected high throughput abattoir in the Eastern Cape, South Afric
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Soji, Zimkhitha
The carcass classification system was implemented in South Africa as a quality assurance scheme to address consumer uncertainties on the quality of meat they purchase. Although carcass classification is presumed to provide information that can be useful to the meat industry from primary producers to customers, it is argued that the standards used in the system provide inadequate description of the carcass quality related characteristics as it only describes scores and measurements but does not rank for meat quality. Nonetheless, attributes used to evaluate meat quality include eating quality, appearance, freshness, and nutritional value. However, these attributes are neglected in the South African classification system. Two trials were, therefore, conducted to evaluate the classification of red meat and characterise the quality of beef carcasses subjected to the SA classification system at a high throughput abattoir, where five different classification characteristics (age, sex, conformation, bruising and fatness) were used for sheep and cattle carcasses, while the PORCUS classification system was used for pigs. On the first trial a total of 300 animals comprising of 100 cattle, 100 sheep and 100 pigs were used to evaluate the associations between animal traits, carcass traits and carcass classification, while on the second trial beef samples from the Muscularis longissimus thoracis et lumborum of Angus, Bonsmara, Fleckvieh, Non-descript and Simmental genotypes (n=175) were harvested to characterise the quality of beef carcass classes. Significant associations (P<0.05) were found between carcass classes and genotypes of cattle, sheep and pigs. Almost 70 percent of cattle carcasses were in the C classes mainly in the C2 carcass class, while 77 percent of sheep carcasses were of A2 class and 50 percent of pig carcasses were of P class. Significant differences (P<0.05) were observed across genotypes on some meat characteristics (a*, Hab, pH24, TL percent, CL percent and WBSF) of beef carcass classes. The C2 carcass class of Angus genotype had a darker colour (L*) than the Non-descript and Bonsmara genotypes. Redness (a*) of the Bonsmara C2 carcass class differed (P<0.05) from that of Angus, Fleckvieh and Non-descript genotypes. The Non-descript genotype had more yellow subcutaneous fat than all other genotypes. Angus and Simmental genotypes had the toughest meat (40.29 ± 11.62 and 38.71 ± 9.33, respectively), while Non-descript and Fleckvieh genotypes had tender meat (31.53 ± 12.62 and 32.00 ± 7.92, respectively). It was concluded that meat quality characteristics varied within carcasses of the same class across genotypes. Thus consumers might pick differences on the quality of carcasses falling within the same class due to the breed effect which, however, does not form part of the SA classification system.
Effect of Acacia Karoo encroachment on grass production in the semi-arid savannas of the Eastern Cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Magandana, Thabo Patrick
The objectives of this study were (1) to investigate the influence of individual A. karroo on soil and grasss layer. (2) to investigate the effect of Acacia karroo encroachment levels (open, moderate and severe) on the grass layer in semi-arid communal grazing lands. The first study was conducted at the University of Fort Hare farm located in Alice in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. A total of thirty A. karro plants were selected randomly, of which ten trees each having sizes of ( >1.5m – 2m, >2 – 2.5m or > 2.5m ). Two transects radiating out of the tree trunk to open grassland were marked at each woody stand in the north and south directions. Each transect was divided into two sub-transects to represent the under canopy and outside canopy zone. In each sub-transect, two 0.5 x 0.5 m quadrat was laid to record all vegetation and soil data. The tuft diameter of C. plurinodis was significantly (p<0.05) smaller on the open habitats of >1.5m – 2m trees. Tuft diameter of Sporobolus africanus was significantly (p<0.05) smaller under canopies of >2m – 2.5m trees in winter. Tuft diameter of Themeda triandra was significantly lower in the open habitats of >1.5 m – 2m trees in summer. The grass biomass production was significantly (p<0.05) lower under the canopies and open habitats of >1.5m – 2m stands in winter than summer. Soil organic carbon content was significantly (p<0.05) lower under canopy and open habitats of >1.5m – 2m trees. The second study was conducted at Melani communal village which is located approximately 12 km North of Alice Town. Three encroachment sites were selected namely severe (3650 trees/ha), moderate (2521 trees/ha) and open (250 trees/ha). A total of 16 grass species were identified of which 15 were perennials. Grass biomass production was affected (P<0.05) by encroachment being lowest at open sites. T. triandra dominated the moderate and severe encroached sites whereas Digitaria eriantha dominated the low encroached site. Overall decreaser grass species increased with the increase in encroachment levels. On the other hand, the increaser II grass species such as S. africanus and microchloa caffra dominated the open site showing that their abundance decreased with the increase in tree density. In terms of height, grass species at the open site were shorter (P<0.05) than the moderate and severe encroached sites. Basal cover improved with the increased encroachment levels. Grass biomass production was affected (P<0.05) by encroachment being lowest at open sites. A. karroo improves grass production. Grass layer improves under tree canopies with the increase in A. karroo up to a point where A. karroo suppresses grass growth. The more palatable grass species occurred under canopies than open habitats. T. triandra was dominant under tree canopies than open habitats. The grass biomass production and basal cover improved under canopies than open habitats.
Adaptive responses to heat stress, quality of hide and meat from indigenous Nguni and non-descript crossbred cattle
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Chikwanda, Denice
The main objective of this study was to determine the adaptive responses of Nguni and non-descript crossbred cattle (NDCC) to heat stress, nutritionally-related blood metabolite profiles, fatty acid profiles, carcass and meat characteristics, physico-mechanical properties of automotive upholstery crust leather and the associated collagen fibre architecture of hides and crust leather. Forty steers (20 Nguni and 20 NDCC) which were approximately 14 months of age with live weights ranging between 153 kg and 203 kg at the beginning of the study were used. Environmental variables (ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind parameters, solar radiation) were collected from a weather station at the research farm. Temperature-humidity index (THI) values were computed. Rectal and skin temperature, skin traits and blood metabolites were determined at two-week intervals over 16 weeks. Hair coat scores ranged from extremely short (score 1) to very woolly (score 7). At slaughter, blood samples were collected after exsanguination. Meat samples were collected from the right muscularis longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and Triceps brachii (TB) muscles after 24 hours of chilling of carcasses for physico-chemical quality tests. Fatty acid profiles and physico-chemical quality of meat were determined on the LTL and TB. An additional fifty-four hides (27 Nguni and 27 NDCC) were obtained from a commercial abattoir at slaughter. The hides were tanned into automotive crust leather and tested for physico-mechanical quality. Results showed that week and environmental variables affected skin temperature; also, the rectal and skin temperatures were negatively correlated to body condition, skin pigment, coat score and skin thickness. Non-descript crossbred cattle had higher coat scores (2.1 ± 0.36 to 4.1 ± 4.20) than Nguni cattle (1.6 ± 0.36 to 4.1 ± 0.36). Body condition scores, blood creatinine, urea, total protein, albumin and globulin were affected by genotype and week of sampling. At the end of the trial, NDCC had higher slaughter and hide weights (285.9 ± 6.52 kg and 18.4 ± 0.54 kg, respectively) than Nguni cattle (232.6 ± 6.5 kg and 14.7 ± 0.54 kg, respectively). The majority of NDCC carcasses (73.7 percent) had a fatness level of 1 compared to Nguni carcasses (50 percent). Intramuscular fat was higher in Nguni (1.8 ± 0.09 percent) compared to NDCC (1.5 ± 0.09 percent) steers. Nguni steers had darker muscle colour (L*=33.6 ± 0.01) than NDCC (L*= 35.7 ± 0.54). Nguni and NDCC had similar thawing loss, cooking loss, WBSF tenderness, fat-free dry matter, moisture content, fatty acid profiles and health-related lipid indices. Ultimate muscle pH, meat colour and chroma were similar in the LTL and TB. Concerning the skin, Nguni and NDCC had similar physico-mechanical properties. However, breaking load and tensile strength were higher (1257.1 ± 70.72 N and 28.3 ± 1.23 MPa) in samples taken parallel to the backbone compared to that taken perpendicular to the backbone (979.5 ±70.72 N and 23.6 ±1.23MPa) across the two genotypes. Non-descript crossbred crust leather varied in physico-mechanical tests by direction of sampling. Collagen fibre orientation in hides and crust samples also varied between longitudinal and cross-sections. Collagen fibre diameters in the Nguni were similar in longitudinal and cross-sections (3.4 ± 0.12 μm and 3.2 ± 0.11 μm, respectively). From this study, it is concluded that THI, hair coat, skin traits and body condition affect skin temperature, but not rectal temperature, cortisol and CK activity in Nguni and NDCC reared extensively. The two genotypes differ in nutritionally-related blood metabolites, growth performance, hide weights and carcass traits. Beef from Nguni and NDCC differs in the IMF and meat lightness but is similar in the meat fatty acid composition and some physico-chemical quality parameters. Automotive crust leathers from the two genotypes were similar in some physico-mechanical properties. Collagen architecture varied among different regions of hides and crust leathers.
Characterisation of goat production systems in selected coastal areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Dube, Kululeko
The main objective of the study was to characterise goat production systems by resource limited farmers in coastal areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. A household survey followed by monitoring of goat flocks was conducted among 100 communal farmers in Port St Johns and Umquma Municipalities. All data was analysed using SAS and simulation models were developed using the DynaMod model. The male household heads (75 percent) owned most of the goats, followed by female de-jure (16 percent) and de-facto (6 percent) heads. Goats were mainly used for ceremonies (38 percent) and generation of income (37 percent). The farmers kept mostly indigenous goats together with Boer breed and their crosses. Most farmers controlled internal parasites through regular dosing. The control of external parasites was through dipping. The goat housing was made of wooden poles without any roofing and the kids were kept together with the mature goats in these structures. The goats were marketed through informal channels at an average price of R1500 per goat. Most farmers preferred selling castrated male goats (57 percent) with peak sales in winter and late summer. Generally, the reproductive performance was low across all villages. Majola village had the lowest fecundity (68 percent) and prolificacy (111 percent) while the other villages showed higher fertility rates (Prolificacy 120-124 percent; Fecundity 80-88 percent). Low kid survivability was associated with multiple births as villages with higher fertility rates had the highest infant mortality (31-38 percent). The villages of Port St Johns Municipality had high goat populations in both current and improved production simulations. Inadequate nutrition supply however restricted the growth potential of the Majola flock while genetic unfitness limited that of Izibityolo, Mission and Klanisi villages. iii Goat class distribution was characterised by a few bucks and high doe proportions across all the villages. Breeding ratio per village was above the recommended 0.04 in all villages despite lack of buck ownership by most households. The effective population sizes were all below 50 hence endangering the existence of indigenous Xhosa lob-eared goats in these populations. The failure to control breeding resulted in high inbreeding rates that surpassed the acceptable threshold level of 0.063 in all villages except Majola. The negative relationship between effective population size and fertility indicators revealed the deleterious effect of inbreeding to flock productivity. This was also further evidenced by the positive relationship between fecundity and kid mortality. These results revealed that there were high levels of genetic unfitness resulting in offspring adaptation failure as shown by high kid mortalities in the flocks. In conclusion, goat production was characterised by ineffective management strategies which led to lower reproductive performance as there were high inbreeding levels across the villages.
The potential utilization of Acacia Karroo in improving communal goat nutrition in the False Thornveld of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) William, Maguraushe
The study assessed the difference between the performance of goats browsing on Acacia karroo communal browsing lands and open grasslands as well as determining nutritional composition of A. karroo leaves in the False Thornveld of Eastern Cape Province of South Africa at different times of the year. A total of 80 communal household goat herds and eight A. karroo browse trees were monitored for a period of 12 months in a parallel experiment. In the first experiment, most entries as births were recorded in large herds within the A. karroo encroached community, especially during the hot-wet season (November to February). Households with large herd sizes sold and slaughtered significantly (P<0.05) more goats than those with small herd sizes in both communities. Mortality was significantly (P< 0.05) higher during the hot-wet season in the open grassland. Households keeping small herds in open grassland had the lowest goat production potential (GPP) in the cool-dry season (May to August). The average daily gain (ADG) and body condition scores (BCS) of goats browsing in A. karroo encroached areas were generally higher than in open grassland, especially during the cool-dry season. However, the GPP and goat production efficiency (GPE) were not significantly (P> 0.05) different between the two communities across the seasons. In the second experiment, all selected A. karroo browse trees had crude protein (CP) above 110 g/kg of dry matter (DM) which is sufficient to maintain the requirements of goats at low to medium production. The A. karroo browse contained significantly (P<0.05) higher ADF (496.4±33.8 g/kg DM), CT (18.4±4.2 g/kg DM), Ca (26.8±0.8 g/kg DM) and Mg (2.9±0.03 g/kg DM) during the cool-dry season than other times of the year. There were no significant (P>0.05) differences on the amounts of NDF, TL, SP, P, S, Zn, Mn and Cu throughout the study period. The level of CP (182.4±6.7 g/kg DM) was significantly (P<0.05) higher during the hot-wet season than other times of the year. It was suggested that A. karroo leaves have the potential to be integrated into communal goat feeding systems in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. It was concluded that the goats which browsed A. karroo trees largely performed better in both growth and reproduction parameters than those which grazed in open grassland especially during the cool-dry season. Acacia karroo leaves relatively maintain considerable levels of CP and minerals throughout the year which are sufficient to support low to medium communal goat production.
Potential of Eisenia foetida as a protein source for broiler chickens and its effect on growth performance, diggestive organs, and bone strentgh and meat characteristics
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Gunya, Busisiwe
This study was conducted to determine the nutrient composition of Eisenia foetida earthworm meal and its effects as a protein source on growth performance, carcass characteristics and meat quality of broilers. Protein content was higher in freeze-dried earthworm meal while drying methods did not influence fat content. Most minerals (macro and micro) of E. foetida meal were significantly different except for calcium (P < 0.05) with freeze-dried E. foetida meal having the predominant minerals than oven-dried earthworms. Most essential fatty acids were significantly higher in oven-dried E. foetida meal than in freeze-dried earthworm meal. A total of 180 day old Cobb broilers were randomly allocated to five dietary treatments as follows: T1 (0 percent), T2 (1 percent), T3 (3 percent), T4 (5 percent) and T5 (10 percent) earthworm meal inclusion. The FCR was significantly influenced by dietary treatments at 0-21d of age, with T1 birds had the best FCR than all dietary treatments. At 22-28 days of age, significant dietary effects (P < 0.05) were observed on ADG and ADFI. The highest ADG was recorded in T3 birds (89.9g), the least ADG was seen in T5 (60.9g). All growth traits were significantly different (P < 0.05) across dietary treatments at 29-35 days of age. Birds in T4 recorded the highest values of BWG (1137.9g) and ADG (162.5g) and the least BWG and ADG of 882.9g and 126.1g, respectively, were observed in T3 while, ADFI was highest in T3 birds (199.4g) and the least was recorded in T5 (164.4g). Furthermore, birds in T4 had the highest (1.6) FCR and birds in T1 recorded the least value (1.2). At 1- 35 days of age no significance difference (P > 0.05) was observed on ADG, ADFI, and FCR among different inclusion levels of E. foetida meal. The dietary effect was observed on BWG (P < 0.05) and birds fed 5 percent inclusion of earthworm meal (T4) had the highest body weight gain of 2590.4g. However, no significant difference (P > 0.05) was observed in the dressing percentage for birds fed with or without E. foetida meal. Birds in T3 had the highest (2.1kg) body weight, while the least body weight was recorded for birds in T5 (1.7 kg). Dietary treatments did not significantly (P > 0.05) influence gizzard pH. However, gizzard weight and intestine weight were significantly different (P < 0.05) among dietary treatments. Birds in T2 exhibited the highest gizzard weight (42.5g) and birds in T4 recorded the least weight of 36.1g. The highest intestine weight of 92.2g was observed in birds in T3, while the least weight of 80.1g was observed in birds in T5. Dietary treatments significantly influenced bone strength, where birds in T1, exhibited the highest strength and those in T2 exhibited the lowest bone strength. Bone ash percentage was influenced by dietary treatments. Birds in T2 had the highest ash percentage (70.2 percent) where those in T3 and T4 had the least bone ash percentage. Wing, thigh, and drumstick yield were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in T3 birds, whereas the breast yield was the highest in T5 birds. Liver and gizzard yield were significantly higher in birds in T5, while the least values were seen in birds in T3. Furthermore, there were no significant differences (P > 0.05) observed with heart and spleen yield among the birds fed different treatments. The highest values for L* and b* were found in T4 birds while the highest values for a* were found in T1 (control) birds. The pH values of breast meat were affected (P < 0.05) by the dietary treatments at 1 and 48 hours post-mortem. However, at one hour post-mortem, the highest pH values were observed in breast meat of birds in T3 (6.6) and T5 (6.6) while at 48 hour post-mortem, the highest values were seen in T1 (5.8) birds. Dietary treatments had a significant influence (P < 0.05) on cooking loss; even though, there were no differences (P > 0.05) observed on shear force values among the dietary treatments. The highest cooking loss value was observed in T5 (12.0 percent) and the lowest value in T3 (7.2). There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) on chicken aroma and metallic aroma scores of breast meat across the dietary treatments. Moreover, dietary effect (P < 0.05) was observed on first bite scores of breast meat; where meat from T2 had the least score of 2.6, while meat from T5 had the highest score of 3.5. However, breast meat from T5 was found to have the highest scores (3.9) for the initial juiciness and sustained juiciness (P < 0.05), while the lowest scores (2.5) were observed in T2. Chicken and metallic flavor scores of breast meat were not influenced (P > 0.05) by the dietary treatments, contrary to toughness scores (P < 0.05). Breast meat from T5 exhibited the highest scores (3.5) of toughness, whereas the least scores (2.3) were from birds in T2. It was, therefore, concluded in the current study that E. foetida can be considered as an alternative source of protein as it seems to be particularly suitable in broiler nutrition.
Prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases in cattle on communal Rangelands in the highland areas of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2008) Marufu, Munyaradzi Christopher
Surveys were conducted to compare the seasonal tick prevalence and loads, and sero-prevalence of tick-borne diseases (TBD) in Nguni and non-descript cattle on the sweet and sour communal rangelands of the Eastern Cape Province. The tick species observed on both rangeland types were Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (71.0 %), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) species (29.2 %) and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (40.2 %). Hyalomma species (19.0 %) occurred only on the sour rangeland. Tick loads were higher (P < 0.05) in the hot-wet season than in the cool-dry season. Cattle in the sweet rangeland had significantly lower (P < 0.05) tick loads than those in the sour rangeland. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus loads were lower (P < 0.05) in the indigenous Nguni than non-descript cattle in the hot-wet and post-rainy season. Hyalomma species were also significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the Nguni than non-descript cattle in all the seasons. Three TBDs were observed, namely Babesia bovis (44.6 %), Babesia bigemina (45.9 %) and Anaplasma marginale (25.6 %). All the animals were sero-negative for Ehrlichia ruminantium. Nguni cattle had lower (P < 0.05) sero-prevalence for A. marginale in the cool-dry season and B. bigemina in the cool-dry and hot-wet seasons. Cattle in the sweet rangeland had significantly lower sero-prevalence of B. bovis and B. bigemina. Infection with B. bovis and A. marginale decreased (P < 0.05) the packed cell volume. Nguni cattle were recommended for use in the integrated control of ticks and TBD in the communal areas of South Africa as they were better able to cope with tick and TBD infestations than non-descript breeds.
Reproductive performance of cows in sweet and sour veld types under communal production systems in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2008) Nqeno, Noluvuyo
The objective of the study was to evaluate cow reproductive performance in the sweetveld and sourveld communal grazing areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. In the first experiment, farmer perceptions were obtained using participatory rural appraisals. Farmers ranked lack of fences, tick-borne diseases, poor animal condition during winter and poor breeding practices, respectively as major constraints limiting cattle production in the Eastern Cape. Cattle, sheep and goats, in that order, were ranked as the most important livestock species and were mainly kept for meat, cash and ceremonies, respectively. The non-descript cattle breed was the most common breed found in the smallholder areas. Most farmers preferred Nguni breed because of its adaptive attributes. In the second experiment, structured questionnaires were administered, between June and August 2006, to a total of 551 farmers from 10 communities of the Eastern Cape. There was a significant association (P<0.05) between the use of pregnancy diagnoses and community. About 87 and 77 % of the interviewed farmers did not respond on the extent of pregnancy and calving rates in their herds. A higher proportion of farmers from Hekele (51%) and from Upper Mnxe (45.3%) communities reported low number of bulls as a major constraint to cow reproductive performance. Body condition and ovarian activity were measured in the sweet and sour veld types. Body condition score of animals was measured from March 2007 until January 2008 and ovarian activity of cows was performed by a veterinarian through rectal palpation in June, August and October 2007 and January 2008. From March to July, there was a marked decline in body condition on both veld types. In the sweetveld, body condition improved from September until January, whereas in the sourveld the improvement in body condition started in October. The cows in both veld types conceived throughout the year. Most cows in the sweetveld were cycling in January and August (P<0.05) whereas in the sourveld there was no distinct period when the animals were cycling. Overall, there were no differences in the proportion of cows that were cycling between the sour and sweet veldts (P>0.05). There were more cows cycling in sourveld in October than in the sweetveld. Reproductive performance of cows in communal areas could, therefore, be determined by levels and quality of nutrition.
Alternative remedies used by resource-limited farmers in the treatment and manipulation of the reproductive system of non-descript goats in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Rwodzi, Maxwell
This study was carried out to determine alternative approaches used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and in the treatment of reproduction ailments of goats in Mount Frere area, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Furthermore, information on farmer perceptions pertaining to these practices was also gathered. A questionnaire survey was conducted to determine materials used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and treat reproductive ailments. The survey revealed 10 plant species that were commonly used for reproductive health in goats. Elephantorrhizza elephantina (37.1%) and Rhoicissus tomentosa (25.7%) were the most frequently cited plant species. Elephantorrhiza elephantina and R. tomentosa recorded the highest Fidelity Level (FL) values of 92.86% and 75% respectively, for their use in the treatment of reproductive ailments and these were the plants on which further studies were conducted. The study also revealed that farmers had different perceptions on the effectiveness of the traditional medicines. An in-vivo assessment was done to determine efficacy of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa using serum estradiol and progesterone profiles. The highest (P<0.05) serum estradiol and progesterone concentration was observed in animals administered with aqueous extracts of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa mixture while the least (P<0.05) concentrations were observed in the negative control group. Does administered with a mixture of aqueous E. elephantina and R. tomentosa extract had the highest (P<0.05) body weight (65 kg) as well as body condition scores, while the negative control which were administered with distilled water had the least body weights (54 kg) and body condition scores. Does that were administered with a mixture of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa were all pregnant with twins (100%), confirmed by a doppler ultrasound scan.
Alternative methods used by small-holder farmers to control ticks and bovine dermatophilosis and the impact of a changing interface of Amblyomma ticks on dermatophilosis in Zimbabwe.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Ndhlovu, Daud Nyosi
This study was carried out to document the ethno-veterinary plants and non-plant remedies that farmers used to control dermatophilosis and ticks, and validate these in vitro and in vivo, as well as determine how the interface of Amblyomma variegatum and A. hebraeum affected the epidemiology of bovine dermatophilosis at selected small-holder areas in North-West Zimbabwe. A structured questionnaire survey was used to collect information on the control methods used by farmers for the control of bovine dermatophilosis and ticks. A total of 39 plants were used by farmers for various diseases, eleven of these plants were used for the control of dermatophilosis while three were for tick control. Across the study sites, dermatophilosis was controlled using eleven plants. Among these plants; six plants; Cissus quadrangularis, Catunaregan spinosa, Pterocarpus angolensis Carica papaya, Manihot esculenta and Blumea decurrens which were frequently used were selected for further studies. In vitro and in vivo studies were conducted to validate the efficacy of these plants. The minimum inhibitory concentration and bactericidal concentration assays were used for the in vitro validation of C. quadrangularis, C. spinosa and P. angolensis. Dermatophilus congolensis was more sensitive to P. angolensis average MIC = 0.63 mg/ml than to C. quadrangularis average MIC = 1.25 mg/ml and C. spinosa average MIC = 2.08 mg/ml. Cissus quadrangularis was selected for in vivo studies as this plant was the one most frequently used by farmers. Its therapeutic efficacy was compared to conventional antibiotics that farmers used to treat dermatophilosis infection. In the in vivo trials C. quadrangularis did not lead to appreciable reduction in clinical disease compared to the conventional drugs. The larval packet assay was the in vitro assay used to validate the efficacy of Carica papaya, Manihot esculenta and Blumea decurrens against larvae of A. hebraeum and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Manihot esculenta at 20 % w/v exhibited the highest larvicidal activity against R. appendiculatus. In the in vivo study, efficacy of the plants were investigated on naturally tick-infested cattle. Mannihot esculenta exhibited the largest tick load reduction compared to the other two plants but its performance was lower than that of conventional acaricides. The effect of A. variegatum and A. hebraeum on bovine dermatophilosis was investigated by evaluating how the presence or absence of these ticks and other herd level risk factors predicted clinical dermatophilosis and its prevalence at herd level. A structured questionnaire survey was carried out to collect data on potential risk factors. At the same time, cattle were physically examined for the presence of bovine dermatophilosis, according to a pre-defined case definition, and presence or absence of Amblyomma ticks was also recorded. The multivariable binary logistic model was developed with disease status as outcome, tick presence and infestion and herd level risk factors as predictors. Of the herds examined clinical bovine dermatophilosis was detected in 45% (84/185; 95% CI: 38.2, 52.6%) of them. Herds infested with Amblyomma variegatum were associated with higher odds (OR= 6.8; 95% CI: 1.71, 27.10) of clinical dermatophilosis while the association was not significant (P > 0.05) in A. hebraeum infested herds. It was concluded that management practices aimed at movement and tick control would help reduce the prevalence of clinical dermatophilosis in herds.
Perceptions of rural consumers on behaviour and beef quality of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies in the Eastern Cape of South Africa.
(2014) Soga, Sizwe William
The objective of the study was to determine perceptions of the consumers on how they judged behaviour and beef quality of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. A survey was conducted where a sample of 200 consumers were randomly selected and interviewed. Fifty non-descript cattle were slaughtered during traditional ceremonies and two hundred and twenty four (224) cattle were slaughtered at 3 through-put abattoirs (high, medium and low). Meat quality attributes were determined from the cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies and from cattle slaughtered at the abattoirs. Data for questionnaires was summarized as frequencies for each ceremony and statistical differences were analysed using chi square test (X2). The effect of Age, breed and sex on beef pH, colour, meat tenderness, temperature and cooking loss of cattle slaughtered during traditional ceremonies, at low, medium and high throughput abattoirs were analyzed using General Linear Model (PROG GLM) of SAS (2003). There was a significant age effect (P < 0.05) on beef tenderness and cooking loss of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies. Age of cattle that have milk teeth to 1 year and age of 6 years to 8 years had an effect on the beef tenderness (25.55 ± 8.05) and cooking loss (48.00 ± 4.26) of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies in Table 4.1. There was no significant sex effect on beef tenderness and cooking loss of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies. Non-descript and Angus cattle slaughtered at low throughput abattoir had an effect on the colour of the beef in Table 4.2. The lightness (27.49 ± 2.53) and yellowness (21.16 ± 0.79) of the beef shows that there was a significant breed effect on cattle that are slaughtered at Low throughput abattoir, however redness of the meat was not affected by breed after slaughter. Cattle that are slaughtered at high throughput abattoir between ages of 6 to 8 years and also cattle that are more than 8 years in Table 4.4 had an effect on cooking loss (p < 0.05). Age between 6 to 8 years had an effect on the beef tenderness from cattle that are slaughtered at medium throughput abattoir. It was concluded that the meat tenderness of the young cattle with milk teeth slaughtered for traditional ceremonies was affected. On the other hand the meat tenderness and cooking loss of beef from the cattle slaughtered from low, medium and high throughput abattoir were affected by sex and breed mostly.
Socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys (Equus asinus) used for carting in a peri-urban area of South Africa
(2014) Marufu, Madure; Maphosa, V
The broad objective of the study was to determine the socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys used for carting in a peri-urban area. A survey was conducted among 71 donkey owners in Joza, a peri-urban area near Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) of South Africa to investigate their perceptions on socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys used for transport. Two hundred and seventy-one donkeys used for carting were assessed through direct observation of health and behaviour parameters to determine their welfare status. Results revealed that donkeys are indeed of immense value to people, being used daily (54.93%) for income generation activities and at least once per month (7.08%) for domestic chores. Most of the respondents (32%) earned R 600.00 per week while 11% earned at least R 200.00 per week from carting using donkeys. Donkeys were used for carting of goods (90.14%) more than for manure (16.9%). Gender and age of owners significantly (P < 0.05) influence perceptions on source of income while education level influenced their perceptions on carting firewood, goods and water. Results on management practices and health problems encountered by working donkeys showed that most of the owners managed their animals poorly. Most donkeys were being beaten (74.65%) during work, made to travel long distances (43.66%), worked long hours (52.11%) without adequate water (59.10%) and feed supplements (83.10%). Wounds (95.97%), coughing (75.65%) and lameness (64.79%) were some of the health problems encountered by donkeys. Significant relationships (P ˂ 0.05) were observed between owners’ perceptions on management practices and health problems encountered by donkeys. Among the observed animals, 61% were thin and mostly apathetic (26.2%) than medium and fat animals. Responses to observer approaches were significantly associated with sex and body condition score (BCS), with stallions in good body condition being more aggressive. Donkeys having a BCS of 3-5 avoided chin contact either by kicking out or moving away. Results further showed that most of the donkeys were suffering from external injuries, with the hindquarters (39.85%), shoulder (32.10%) and spine (21.77%) being the mostly affected areas. The prevalence of wounds on tail-base, belly, flank and neck were seen in less than 13% of the animals. The prevalence of wounds was influenced by age and BCS of the animals. Young donkeys with good BCS were less affected than old donkeys. Lameness, poor coat condition, external parasites, abnormal mucous membrane and dental problems were observed in less than 30% of the animals. It was concluded that donkeys play a pivotal role economically and socially to the livelihoods of people in a peri-urban area (Joza) in terms of income generation and transportation. However, these animals are experiencing multiple health and welfare problems. Therefore, more access to veterinary services, training on donkey use and management, health and welfare promotion programs are of paramount importance in solving the problem of poor health and welfare in donkeys.
Effects of dietary inclusion of Moringa oleifera leaf meal on growth performance, physico-chemical attributes, oxidative stability and sensory quality of pork
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Nduku, Xola, P.
The objective of the study was to determine growth performance, physico-chemical attributes, oxidative stability and sensory quality of pork from pigs fed one of three dietary treatments, eac containing 0%, 2.5% or 5% (T1, T2 and T3, respectively) Moringa oleifera leaf meal (MOLM). Dietary treatments were formulated to be isonitrogenous and isoenergetic for weaner (6 – 8 weeks) and grower (9 – 13 weeks) phases. Twelve Large White (LW) and 12 Kolbroek (KB) male pigs at 6 weeks of age, initially weighing an average 10 kg, were randomly allocated to one of the dietary treatments, each with four replicates, in individual pens. Feed and water were offered ad libitum. The Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscle of each carcass (n = 24) was sampled for meat quality and fatty acid analyses. Breed differences in measured parameters were observed. In pigs receiving 5% MOLM, the LW had significantly the highest ADFI (P<0.05) than KB pigs. In pigs receiving 2.5% and 5% MOLM, backfat thickness was significantly highest (P<0.05) compared to those receiving 0% MOML. Dietary inclusion of MOLM had no significant effects (P>0.05) on the physico-chemical quality of pork from LW pigs; although it significantly (P<0.05) increased a* and reduced WBSF values in pork from KB pigs. Pork from LW pigs receiving 5% MOLM had significantly increased (P<0.05) n-3 content of the subcutaneous tissue of LW pigs compared to KB, and also when compread to other treatment groups. In both breeds, the composition of PUFA: SFA and n-6: n-3 in the subcutaneous adipose tissue was significantly (P<0.05) lower in T2 and T3 than in T1. The n-3 levels for pork muscle from LW pigs receiving 2.5% and 5% MOLM, and from KB pigs receiving 5% MOLM, were significantly (P<0.05) lower. Inclusions of MOLM significantly (P<0.05) reduced the n-6: n-3 fatty acids in pork from both LW pigs and KB pigs. Consumer scores on sensory attributes (aroma intensity, initial impression of juiciness, first bite, sustained impression of juiciness, muscle fibre and overall tenderness and overall flavor intensity) significantly (P<0.05) increased as the level of MOLM inclusion in the diet increased; and higher scores were observed in fried meat than in boiled for most sensory attributes. It may be concluded that inclusion of MOLM in pig diets up to 5% improved the ADFI, a*, tenderness of pork without adversely affecting the FCR and other physico-chemical quality attributes; and resulted in desired increase in levels of n-3 and reduced the n-6: n-3 fatty acid ratio.
The effects of distance, lairage duration and animal-related factors on pre-slaughter stress indicators, carcass characteristics, nanostructure and technological properties of beef
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Chulayo, Amanda Yucca
The main objective of the current study was to determine the effect of distance travelled (DT), lairage duration (LDhr) and animal-related factors (animal class, breed, sex) on pre-slaughter stress indicators, carcass characteristics, nanostructure and technological properties of beef. The study was conducted in an Eastern Cape abattoir under the Buffalo City District Municipality. Six genotypes of cattle (Beefmaster, Bonsmara, Brahman, Holstein-Friesian, Non-descript and Nguni) brought for slaughter at the abattoir on different days were used in the study. Slaughter weight (SWT), warm and cold carcass weight (WCW and CCW), fatness and conformation of each animal were measured and recorded. Representative samples of blood plasma and meat quality from the Muscularis thoracis et lumborum (LTL) were collected at slaughter and 24 hours after slaughter, respectively. Heat shock proteins 70kDa (HSPA1A), glucose (GLU), cortisol (CORT), creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were determined from the blood plasma. The representative LTL muscle was used to determine ultimate pH (pHu), lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), meat temperature (Tm), Warner Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF) and histological structure of beef. There were significant effects of distance on pHu, Tm, a*, b*, TL%, CK and LDH. Pearson correlations were observed between distance travelled (DT), creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), ultimate pH (pHu), colour coordinates (L*, a* and b*) and Warner Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF). Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the 1st (pHu), 2nd (Tm) and 3rd (L*) principal components were the critical meat quality attributes. Positive relationships between carcass weights and beef quality characteristics for bovine cattle where the cumulative percentage of the first six principal component`s (PC`s) (SWT, WCW, CCW, DP, pHu and Tm contributed to 93.4 % of the total variance. Significant correlation coefficients between DT (r = 0.15), LDhr (r = 0.29), Ta (r = -0.52), Tm (r = 0.26), L* (r = 0.33), a* (r = 0.32) and WBSF (r = -0.49) were observed. Meat from Brahman (BR), Non-descript (ND) and Nguni (NG) cows had visible skeletal muscle fibres which were thin and long indicating improved tenderness of beef. Exposing animals to longer hours of transportation did not only reduce glucose levels but also increased the expression of HSPA1A and levels of cortisol. The CK and LDH were not related to beef quality. Therefore, CK and LDH can be used as indicators of animal welfare in slaughter cattle but cannot be used to predict the quality of meat. Bulls were the heaviest, although heifers had the highest dressing percentage than cows. Furthermore, the nanostructure of beef indicated that heifers had the best muscle fibres, sarcomere length and visible intercalated discs. The observed nanostructures of Nguni genotype are an indication of tender meat. Beef from heifers of Nguni had visible and tender meat with traces of intramuscular fat while males had shorter sarcomere length and tougher meat.
Effects of Aloe ferox in drinking water, on growth performance, blood parameters, meat quality, fatty acid profile and oxidative stability of broiler meat
(2014) Kamba, Evelyn Tatenda
The objective of the study was to determine the effects of Aloe ferox inclusion in drinking water on growth performance, blood biochemistry, physico-chemical characteristics, fatty acid profile and oxidative stability of broiler meat. The importance of A. ferox as a medicinal plant and factors that influence its utilization by communal poultry farmers were also investigated by use of a questionnaire survey. The survey revealed that the majority of respondents (84.6%) faced health challenges in their chickens and many relied (96.2%) on A. ferox to treat diseases and control parasites. The study also revealed that the choice of medicine (traditional or conventional) was influenced (P<0.05) by level of education and income. In the second phase of the research, a total of 600 Ross 308 day-old broilers, were randomly put in 6 treatment groups with 4 replicates, each having 25 birds. Fresh aqueous A. ferox leaf juice (ALJ) was administered in drinking water at a dosage of 20ml/litre to T1, T2 and T3 from day one to day 35, day one to day 14 and day 15 to day 28, respectively. Birds in T4 and T5 (positive controls) were treated with terramycin at the recommended dosage of 14g/litre of drinking water from day one to day 6 and from day 15 to 20, respectively; and birds in T6 (negative control) received distilled water from day 1 to 35. Feed Intake (FI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated for the 5 week trial. After slaughter, carcass characteristics particularly dressing percentage (DP) and relative organ weight (ROW) were calculated. Serum biochemistry was also determined. For meat quality, pH and color were recorded 45 minutes and 24 hours after slaughter from the breast muscle. Fatty acid profiling and oxidative stability were determined using meat samples from the breast and thigh muscles. The results for growth performance showed that thebirds which were given A. ferox for the first two weeks (T2) consumed significantly (P>0.05) more feed (189.4g) than those in the negative control (159.6g) at the beginning of the starter phase. Subsequently, their ADG recorded on day 7 (27.1g) and day 14 (43.1g) were significantly (P<0.05) higher than the negative control (22.8g and 36.2g, respectively). Significant treatment effects (P<0.05) for FCR were reported in the 4th week for the birds that received A. ferox throughout (T1: 3.5). Carcass characteristics were not significantly (P>0.05) affected by A. ferox inclusion in drinking water. The highest high density lipoprotein (HDL) values (2.78 mmol/L) were yielded in T2and T3 had the lowest values (0.61mmol/L) for low density lipoprotein (LDL). For physico-chemical properties, no significant effects (P>0.05) of treatment on pH, colour, cooking loss and tenderness were observed. However, the group treated with A.ferox throughout the production cycle, had the highest pH (6.2), lowest lightness (38.5), highest redness (4.1), highest tenderness (13.86N) and the lowest cooking loss (12.6%). Significant treatment effects (P<0.05) were observed on the composition of the PUFA eicosatrienoic acid (C20:3c8, 11, 14(n-6)) of the breast muscle which was significantly lower in the A. ferox treatment groups than the positive controls. For the thigh muscle, there were significant (P<0.05) treatment effects on composition of palmitoleic acid (C16:1c9) and g-linolenic acid (C18:3c6, 9, 12 (n-3)). No significant (P>0.05) effects were found on oxidative stability of both thigh and breast muscles. In conclusion, the wide use of A. ferox by communal chicken farmers showed its importance as a medicinal plant. Apart from it being an effective medicinal plant, A. ferox inclusion in drinking water results in improved FI, ADG, reduced in LDLC and better g-linolenic and palmitoleic acid composition in the meat.
Species and spatio-temporal variation in the yield, nutritive value and in vitro ruminal fermentation characteristics of selected grass species from two communal grazing lands of the Eastern Cape.
(University of Fort Hare, 2013) Kwaza, Ayanda; Beyene, S.
Communal rangelands sustain a large proportion of the livestock in South Africa. A few dominant grass species contribute to the bulk of the livestock forage in these rangelands. Little is known on the chemical composition and in vitro ruminal fermentation characteristics of grass species grazed by ruminants in the communal grazing lands of Eastern Cape Province in South Africa. The objectives of this study were therefore to investigate seasonal and altitudinal variations in biomass yield, chemical composition, and in vitro ruminal degradability and cumulative gas production of selected (dominant) grass species. The grass species were collected over four seasons (summer, autumn, winter and spring) from three altitudes/landscape gradients (upland, gentle sloppy and bottomlands) across two communal areas (Hala in highland (Highveld) and Gqumashe in lowland (Lowveld)) of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. In each altitude, three 50 m x 20 m plots, which served as replicates were marked to collect vegetation samples. A 5 x 4 x 3 factorial experiment in a randomised complete block design was used with season, altitude and grass species being the main factors, and with the plots within altitudes serving as blocks (replicates). Data analysis was done separately for the two communal study areas using the General Linear Models (GLM) procedure of SAS to test differences between species, seasons and altitudes. The common grass species in both grazing lands were Cynodon dactylon, Eragrostis chloromelus, Eragrostis plana, Sporobolus africanus and Themeda triandra. When the DM yield of all the grasses was combined, the results showed a generally low forage dry matter yield during the dry season. There was no significant (P>0.05) interaction between any of the main factors. Macro and micro mineral content of plant samples collected from the two communal grazing lands showed great variations (P<0.05) between species, seasons and altitude. In the Highveld, CP ranged from 3.9 to 6.5% DM being significantly highest (P<0.05) in Cynodon dactylon and lowest in E. plana. When all species were combined, higher CP was recorded for samples harvested in summer (5.5%) followed by spring and autumn, and lowest in winter (3.8%). In the Lowveld, Eragrostis chloromelus had higher (P<0.05) CP level followed by C. dactylon and T. Triandra. When all species were pooled, forage samples harvested in summer had a significantly higher (P<0.05) CP followed by spring, autumn and winter. In summary, CP content of all grasses was below the critical maintenance level for livestock especially during late dry seasons. In both areas, the highest NDF level was measured for Eragrostis plana and lowest for Themeda triandra. As for altitudinal differences, samples collected from the upland areas had generally the lowest (P<0.05) CP and highest ADF contents. For grasses harvested from the Highveld, C. dactylon produced the most (P<0.05) gas after 48 h of fermentation (794.6 ml/g DM) and also had the highest 48h DMD (415.1 g kg-1). Themeda triandra produced least (P<0.05) gas (742 ml/g DM) 48h post-incubation. The least (P<0.05) degradable species after 48 h was E. chloromelus (372.9 g kg-1). For grasses harvested from Lowveld, the 48h cumulative gas production was highest (822.7 ml/g DM) in E. plana and lowest (742.8 ml/g DM) in E. chloromelus, while S. africanus had least 48h DMD (327.9 kg-1). In both the Highveld and Lowveld, gas production and DMD were highest in the autumn season. It was concluded most grasses were deficient in calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium. Therefore, it is recommended that mineral supplements should be offered to animals to improve animal productivity throughout the year. Findings of this study suggested that addition of protein and energy sources may be desirable in both grazing areas to meet the maintenance/production requirements of the grazing ruminants throughout the year.
Meat condemnation in slaughtered bovine species in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Jaja, Ishmael Festus; Muchenje, V.; Green, E.
A study was conducted in three abattoirs represented by the acronym ANA, QTA and EBA, to determine the causes of meat condemnation and to ascertain monetary losses associated with such condemnation. Ante-mortem and active abattoir surveys were conducted on 229, 458 and 687 cattle from the three abattoirs respectively and abattoir slaughter records (n=51, 302) was obtained from 2010 to 2012. The abattoir records showed that the liver was the most frequently condemned (56.9%), followed by the lung (24.1%), then the heart (7.4%), kidney (6.9%), spleen (4.0%), tongue (0.4%) and carcass (0.3%). An assessment of the abattoir secondary data revealed that the major cause of condemnation of the liver at ANA, QTA and EBA was fasciolosis (5.59, 4.48, 2.68), spleen (abscess, 0.35, 0.94, 0.17) kidney (inflammation, 0.94, 1.01, 1.18), heart (inflammation, 0.9, 1.85, 0.75), tongue (abscess, 0.08, 0.03, 0.05) and lungs (emphysema, 1.12, 1.14, 1.16). Disease/conditions recorded during ante-mortem inspection of animals at the lairage were diarrhea, lameness, emaciation, blindness, orchitis, mastitis, skin conditions, and respiratory symptoms corresponding to 8, 1, 13, 2, 3, 6, 9, and 11 percent, respectively. The percentage of condemned organs was higher during the active abattoir meat inspection than in the previous records from the abattoir. Additional losses of tongue due to gunshot injury and the heart due to cysticercosis were recorded. Prevalence of fasciolosis was calculated and seasonal occurrence was determined based on monthly assortment. From the retrospective data, the prevalence of fasciolsis was 2.9 percent (n = 78728) while the annual (2011, 2012, 2013) prevalence of Fasciola infection for AB1 was (3.2, 2.2 and 2.0%), AB2 (6.4, 4.6 and 3.5%) and AB3 (14.4, 6.9 and 9.5%). Higher prevalence was obtain in summer (AB1 = 10.4%, AB2 = 12.8% and AB3 = 10.9%) and autumn (AB1 = 11.2%, AB2 = 10.8% and AB3 = 8.6%) than in winter (AB1 = 9.8%, AB2 = 6.5% and AB3 = 5.9%) and spring (AB1 = 8.2%, AB2 = 7.8% and AB3 = 5.9%). Monetary loss associated with carcass/offal condemnations in the three abattoirs from 2010 to 2012 was 630, 456 South African Rand (ZAR) or 59, 244 United States Dollars (USD), while the summation of losses due to condemnation during the 6 month active meat inspection revealed a higher loss of ZAR 111, 337.5 (10, 383.8 USD) . Monetary losses associated with carcass weight loss, whole and partial liver condemnation due to infection with Fasciola was calculated as ZAR 917, 921.5 (83, 447 USD), ZAR 31, 661.5 (2, 878 USD) and ZAR 19, 112.3 (1, 737 USD) respectively. In conclusion, organs and carcasses were condemned for several disease and non-disease factors and this led to significant financial loss.

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