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Item Perceptions and sensory evaluation of rabbit meat among consumers in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa(University of Fort Hare, 2024-12) Goli, Ziyanda; Jaja, I.F.; Mazhangara, I.R.Rabbit meat is a healthy source of protein due to its high protein content, low fat, low cholesterol, and low sodium content. Rabbit meat is a sustainable protein source due to its low feed and water requirements, high feed conversion efficiency, minimal land requirements, and reduced greenhouse emissions. However, consumption of rabbit meat and rabbit meat products is still low in South Africa, which may be due to multifaced factors such as the unavailability of rabbit meat in the market, consumers being unfamiliar with rabbit meat or sceptical about its sensory attributes, including taste, texture, and smell. Consumers ' acceptance of rabbit meat is a key factor in marketing rabbit meat as an alternative sustainable protein source. The study aimed to investigate consumer perceptions of rabbit meat and their preference for a rabbit meat product (sausage). The study used two specific objectives: The first objective was to evaluate consumer perceptions of rabbit meat, at the Amathole and Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipalities of Eastern Cape, South Africa. The data was collected from 312 respondents using a questionnaire, where they were asked to respond to questions about their familiarity with rabbit meat, what would attract them to buy rabbit meat, and the limiting factors to the consumption of rabbit meat. The questionnaire was divided into demographic information, general perceptions of rabbit meat, and factors influencing consumers' purchasing decisions. Most respondents (60.9%) had never consumed rabbit meat before the study. When respondents were asked what they associate rabbit meat with, the most frequent answer was hunting. Furthermore, most respondents (87.7%) who had previously eaten rabbit meat stated that hunting was their source. Respondents were asked to state in what form they would like to purchase rabbit meat. About 36.5% of the respondents would not buy rabbit meat in any form. About 3.5% of the respondents rejected rabbit meat when sold as whole carcasses. This study found that most respondents (69.2%) would be encouraged to eat rabbit meat if they found it healthier than conventional meats. Other factors the respondents would pay attention to when making purchasing decisions included price (61.9%) and packaging (52.9%). The lean nature of rabbit meat did not appeal to most respondents (52.9%) as one of the factors that would attract them to buy rabbit meat. When consumers were asked to rate beef, chicken, pork, mutton, and rabbit meat according to their preference, rabbit meat received the least liking (x̄=1.88), while beef had the highest rating (x̄=3.75), followed by chicken (x̄=3.44), pork (x̄=3.41) and mutton (x̄=3.08). The second objective aimed to investigate consumer preference for rabbit sausage in a blind and non-blind sensory evaluation. Sausages were made using different types of meat and fat. The meat types included chicken, pork, and rabbit meat from male (buck) and female (doe) rabbits, with each mixture consisting of meat and fat from the same animal type. Each sausage was made using 80% meat and 20% fat. Additionally, 2% salt and 0.5% pepper were incorporated. The same respondents were subjected to two sensory tests: blind and non-blind sensory evaluation. There was a significant difference (P≤0.05) in the rating of the female rabbit sausage’s aroma between the blind (6.45) and the non-blind panel (7.17). A significant difference was observed in the rating of buck sausages across genders in the overall liking of sausages (P≤0.05). Males rated sausages (7.68) higher than females (6.35). Beef was identified as the most distinct sample, while rabbit meat was not distinct in all the evaluation settings. Taste was the most considered sensory attribute across all evaluation panels. Proximate analysis results show that the male rabbit and pork sausage had an equally high fat content (35.3), while chicken had the lowest fat content (21.5%). The sample from the female rabbit had the highest crude protein (20.2). Beef had the highest amount of collagen-free protein (16.4) and ash (3.7). The male rabbit sausage had the lowest salt content. Nutritional factors and consumer sensory preferences can be used to market rabbit meat by promoting its nutritional benefits and enhancing its sensory attributes to meet consumer expectations. The study revealed there is little exposure to rabbit meat and its products as most consumers had never eaten rabbit meat. Welfare concerns are a major hindrance to the acceptance of rabbit meat by consumers. Consumers are also less accepting of rabbit meat based on its sensory attributes compared to other meat types. There is a need to investigate strategic methods of promoting rabbit meat as it would play a huge role in food security.Item Effect of ensiling Acacia nilotica and Vachellia karroo pods and leaves with molasses and urea on the chemical composition, secondary compounds and in vitro degradability of silage(University of Fort Hare, 2020) Twalo, Nosipho Morin; Gajana, C.S.; Tikwayo, S.E.The study aims to evaluate chemical composition, in vitro degradability, secondary compounds, and pH of Acacia nilotica and Vachellia karroo (pods and leaves). Two trees per browse species were selected, for harvesting leaves and pods. A completely randomized design was used where each treatment was replicated three times. Then 50% of grass and 50% of pods and leaves were mixed with 3% molasses and urea. The Acacia nilotica and Vachellia karroo (pods and leaves) were harvested just before winter (March-April 2018) at Honey Dale Farm. Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) was also harvested at the Research Farm of the University of Fort Hare. The fresh Kikuyu grass was cut into small pieces together with Acacia nilotica and Vachellia karroo (pods and leaves). The samples were packed and compacted by hand, pressing into one (1) litre consol jars with airtight fitting lids. The jars were kept at room temperature for 42 days. The silage was analyzed for chemical composition (CP, NDF, ADF, DM, ADL, ash, OM and pH), secondary compounds (condensed tannins and phenolics) and in vitro degradability. Phenolics showed significant differences (P< 0.05) in urea and molasses treatments. On browse trees Acacia nilotica leaves with urea (0.34), Acacia karroo pods leaves with molasses (0.42) and Acacia Karroo pods with molasses (0.45) had low levels of phenolic compounds compared to Acacia nilotica pods with molasses (0.55). Treatments showed significant differences (P<0.05) in tannin content Acacia karroo leaves with urea (0.22), Acacia nilotica pods with urea (0.23) and leaves with molasses (0.23) and Acacia karroo leaves with molasses (0.28) had low levels compared to Acacia nilotica leaves with urea (0.39). In addition, pH showed significant differences (P<0.05) between all the treatments. Acacia nilotica pods with urea (4.91), Acacia nilotica leaves with molasses (5.23), Acacia nilotica leaves with urea (5.27), and Acacia karroo leaves with molasses (5.40) had low levels compared to Acacia nilotica pods with molasses (6.66). The browse silage results showed significant differences (P< 0.05) among all the treatments in their dry matter content. Acacia karroo leaves mixed with molasses, and Acacia nilotica leaves mixed with urea had higher (P<0.05) dry matter content than others. There were highly significant differences (P<0.05) between neutral detergent fibre (NDF), ash acid detergent lignin (ADL), crude protein (CP), organic matter (OM), and acid detergent fibre (ADF) was also significantly different (P<0.05). Acacia karroo pods ensiled with urea (11.90%), Acacia karroo leaves with urea (9.89%), and Acacia nilotica pods with urea (9.21%) had higher CP content than other treatments. The digestibility of treatments compared to time were significantly different (P<0.05) and within the columns, although there was no significant difference (P>0.05) in the 12th and 36th hours. Acacia karroo leaves mixed with molasses had the highest (488.23) on the 0 hour and Acacia Nilotica pods with urea on the 12th hour (144.10). In conclusion, ensiling using urea and molasses had a positive effect on secondary compounds, chemical composition and digestibility.Item Dairy farmworkers’ knowledge of risk factors and prevalence of bovine lameness in Kwa-Zulu Natal Province, South Africa(University of Fort Hare, 2024) Matshetsheni, Sibulele; Jaja, I.F.Lameness is a crippling problem in the dairy industry, posing a significant welfare challenge and leading to premature culling. Lameness has been identified as the most severe welfare issue in dairy cows, and its observation is the most representative animal-based indicator of dairy cattle well-being. This study assessed the knowledge of dairy farmworkers regarding causes, risk factors, and clinical signs of bovine lameness in Kwa-Zulu Natal Province, South Africa and the seasonal prevalence of lameness in two different provinces of South Africa. The data was collected from 11 dairy farms using a questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided into five sections, the first of which contained demographic information (age, gender, experience, level of study), and the second contained farm information such as farm size and grazing method. However, section C discusses farm workers' knowledge of lameness and risk factors, Section D discusses clinical signs of lameness, and Section E discusses treatment and management of lameness. The data was collected in two local municipalities (Mpofana and Raymond Mhlaba). However, the computer software systems of four randomly selected dairy farms were used to collect retrospective secondary data for lameness and predisposing factors (2018–2022). The data's targeted parameters include breed, parity, weight, stage of lactation, diseases diagnosed (lameness), age, and milk production trends. Significant seasonal variation in the incidence of lameness (P < 0.05) was observed with the highest prevalence (85.5%) occurring in summer compared with other seasons such as Autumn (15%). Respondents reported that a decrease in appetite (93%), reduced milk yield (94%), and increased lying time (90%) were the most common signs of lameness. Nevertheless, the results also demonstrated a significant (P < 0.05) correlation between knowledge of clinical signs of lameness and localities. The movement problem was related to age, gender, and occupation level (P < 0.05). The uMpofana municipality (KZN 58.8%) had higher prevalence compared to Raymond Mhlaba municipality (EC 41.2%). Cattle above nine years of age has the highest prevalence of lameness (36%), compared to 7-8-year-old (24%), 4-6-year-old (21.7%), and 1-3-year-old (14.3%) cattle. Additionally, the highest prevalence of lameness was observed during the summer season, followed by spring, winter, and Autumn. The strongest association is kept for the right front leg (RFL) (p < 0.0001), followed by the left front leg (LFL) (p < 0.001), right back leg (RBL) (p < 0.001), and left back leg (LBL) (p < 0.001). In conclusion, this study provides baseline information on several key factors influencing the prevalence of lameness in dairy cattle in various farms in uMpofana municipality (KZN) and Raymond Mhlaba municipality (EC). Furthermore, training is required in the dairy industry to improve farm workers' knowledge. In addition, farm workers' training and retraining are necessary for managing and mitigating bovine lameness. These findings could be used for farm managerial decision-making and epidemiological interventions.Item The effect of Rhizobium inoculation on growth performance, forage production, nutrient and anti-nutrient content of Lablab purpureus cultivars(University of Fort Hare, 2017) Senti, Sibongile Portia; Mupangwa, J.F.; Moyo, B.Declining soil fertility and inadequate low quality feed resources limit smallholder livestock production in the semi-arid regions of Eastern Cape in South Africa. Smallholder farmers are facing problems of high cost of artificial fertilisers limiting them in production of cereal crops and also fodder for their livestock. This leads to poor nutrition, particularly in the dry season, it affects livestock production. Planting Lablab purpureus and inoculating with Rhizobium would limit the necessity for buying expensive protein supplements and nitrogen fertilisers. Lablab purpureus can provide feed in the dry season for the improvement of livestock production. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of Bradyrhizobium japonicum inoculation on growth performance, biomass production, nutrient and anti-nutrient content of the two Lablab purpureus cultivars (Rongai and Highworth). The experiment was conducted at Fort Hare Research Farm in Alice, South Africa. Data was collected on plant seedling emergence, plant height, stem diameter, plant vigour, chlorophyll content, nodule numbers as well as dry matter content, biomass yield, nutrient and anti-nutrient contents at 30, 60 and 90 DAP. Samples of Lablab purpureus were harvested at flowering stage and analysed for dry matter content, biomass yield, chemical, mineral and anti-ntrient composition. The results showed that Rhizobium inoculation significantly increased (p<0.05) seedling emergence, plant height and stem diameter of both Lablab purpureus cultivars. Rhizobium inoculation had no significant effect (p>0.05) on chlorophyll content for both cultivars. Highworth had significantly higher (p<0.05) plant vigour than Rongai on both inoculated and uninoculated. Varieties and inoculation effects were significant (p<0.05) for number of nodules, nodulation rate, active nodules and nodule dry yield. Rhizobium inoculation significantly (p<0.05) increased fresh matter yield, dry matter yied and dry matter content on both cultivars. There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in NDF, ADIN, ADL, ADF, and Na between inoculated and uninoculated plants for both cultivars. The inoculation of Rhizobium improved CP (15.65%) in Highworth cultivar. The inoculation of Rhizobium significantly increased Ca (1.76-1.84%), Zn (191.91-2 8.33ppm) and Cu (3.50-6.16ppm) compared to un-inoculated plants. Varieties and Rhizobium had no interaction (p>0.05) with condensed tannin, hydrolysable tannin, total polyphenols and saponins . Therefore, the Rhizobium inoculation assisted in improving quality in terms of nutrient composition and decreasing anti-nutrients. It is recommended to use both cultivars of Lablab purpureus. Based on the results of this study it is concluded that Rhizobium inoculation increases yield and forage quality of Lablab purpureus. It is recommended that Highworth cultivar can be used by communal farmers in the Eastern Cape. This cultivar showed that it needs Rhizobium inoculation inorder to produce high quality that can increase livestock production.Item Effects of baobab oil seed cake on growth performance and enteric methane emissions in Savannah × Boer crossbreed yearling goats(University of Fort Hare, 2020-02) Saho, Samkelo; Mpendulo, C.T.; Mupangwa, J.F.The study was conducted to investigate the effects of feeding graded levels of baobab oil seed cake (BOSC) on growth performance and enteric methane emissions of Savannah × Boer goats at yearling age. A total of 24 goats weighing 16.63 ± 3.639 kg were used in a completely randomized block design. The study was conducted for 70 days, where the adaptation period was 14 days. The baobab oil seed cake was included in the diets at 0% (control diet), 15%, 30%, and 45 % on a mass basis. The experimental diets were iso-nitrogenous and iso caloric. In experiment 1, the parameters measured include the average daily feed intake (ADFI), body weight gain (BWG), and average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and enteric methane emissions (EME). On weeks and treatment interaction, the ADG and the BWG were higher in goats fed on diets with 15%, 30%, and 45% BOSC than those fed on the control diet (0% BOSC). Highest ADG was observed on goats that fed on a diet with 30% BOSC. The inclusion of baobab oilseed cake (15%, 30%, and 45% BOSC) goats’ diets significantly increased (P<0.05) (ADFI). Females in the current study gained more weight than males. It was observed that goats fed diets with 0% baobab oil cake emitted higher methane output (P<0.05). Methane emission decreased as the baobab inclusion levels in the diet increase (P<0.05). Female Savannah × Boer goat emitted more methane than male (P<0.05). It was noted that the interaction between animal sex and baobab oil seed cake inclusion levels significantly (P<0.05) influenced methane emission. It was concluded that baobab oil seed cake can be strategically used as animal feed ingredient to influence growth performance and to modulate rumen fermentation in goats.. However, it will be necessary to investigate the effect of baobab seeds on meat quality and the fatty acid composition of goats in future research.Item Growth performance of Savannah-Boar goat crosses fed diets with a silage mixture of varying levels of lucerne and oranges(University of Fort Hare, 2020) Ndongeni, Sibongele; Mpendulo, C.T.; Moyo, B.The broad objective of this study was to assess the nutritional properties and growth performance of Savannah-Boar goat crosses fed silage from a mixture of varying levels of lucerne and oranges. Orange rejects were collected from Fort Beaufort farms (South Africa), sliced into four pieces, in cross-bisectional manner, dried for 1 week and mixed with chopped Lucerne wilted for 12 hours. Lucerne was harvested at Fort Cox College farm (South Africa). The sliced orange rejects were incorporated at varying levels of 0, 12.5, 25 and 37.5% to lucerne. The lucerne and sliced orange rejects were mixed with Sill-All 4x4 silage additive at a rate of 2 litres (L) per ton to improve the fermentation process. Mixture of sliced orange rejects and chopped lucerne were ensiled in 12 plastic drums (200L) with 3 drums per treatment and they were stored at room temperature for period of 90 days. Sampling was done on day 90 for determination of nutritive value and fermentation characteristics of silage. There was significant differences on DM, ADF, NDF, CP and ADL (P<0.05). There was significant differences on pH, LAC and NH3-N concentration (P<0, 05).The significant difference (P<0.05) was shown at Ca, P, Mg, Na, Zn, K, Cu, Mn and Fe. It was concluded that silage made on various inclusion levels of sliced orange rejects (SOR) to lucerne hay produced good silage quality, as indicated by chemical composition and improved fermentation. The formulated diets containing orange-lucerne silage mix was fed to 24 female Savannah-Boar goat crosses (21±1.5kg live weight), 7-8 month old. The experimental trial lasted for 56 days, where 10 days was the adaptation period to the diet. The intake, average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of Savannah-Boar goat crosses were determined. The ADFI and ADG differed significantly among the treatments. Furthermore, significant differences were also observed in FCR between the treatments. The ADFI increased linearly (P<0.001) for the control diet (T1= diet with 0% SOR’s) as the weeks progresses. However, there was quadratic increase (P<0.001) in ADFI with increasing weeks of feeding for goats subjected to diets containing silage with 12.5%, 25%, and 37.5% SOR’s. ADG quadratically increased (P<0.001) and reached its peak at week 7 for T1 and T2, while for T3 the peak was reached at week 6. T4 increased linearly from week 1-7. There was a linear decrease in FCR to its lowest values at week 6 for goats that were fed diets containing silage with 12.5%, 25%, and 37.5% SOR’s. Correlation between ADFI, ADG, and dietary treatments was positive. The FCR was negatively correlated to the ADFI and ADG. In conclusion, a diet with silage containing 0% and 12.5% SOR,s can be recommended to be fed for maintenance with slight weight gain in goats during the dry season.Item Fossil shell flour supplementation in diets of Dohne Merino rams: effects on feed acceptability and heat stress tolerance(University of Fort Hare, 2020-02) Mwanda, Lwazi; Mpendulo, C.T.The objective of the current study was to evaluate the effects of feeding Dohne Merino rams with various inclusion levels of Fossil Shell Flour (FSF) as an additive supplement on feed preference and heat tolerance response of Dohne Merino rams. The FSF is used as an animal feed additive and is known to be rich in minerals. A total of twenty-four Dohne Merino rams (average 19.8 ± 0.43 kg body weight) were used to determine the feed preference of varying inclusion levels fossil shell flour (0g FSF/kg, 20g FSF/kg, 40g FSF/kg and 60g FSF/kg). The preference was assessed using feed intake and coefficient of preference. The feed intake, co-efficient of preference and physical attributes of feed (such as colour, smell and texture) was measured. The feed intake and coefficient of preference were higher in rams supplemented 60g FSF/kg (P < 0.05). The physical attributes of the experimental diets were adjusted based on colour, smell and texture. The colour of experimental diets were brown in 0g FSF/kg while in 20g FSF/kg, 40g FSF/kg and 60g FSF/kg the colour of experimental diets were light brown (P< 0.05). All the experimental diets had a pleasant smell (P< 0.05). The texture of diets with 0g FSF/kg was moderately firm while diets 20g FSF/kg, 40g FSF/kg and 60g FSF/kg had a firm texture. The order of preference of diets supplemented with fossil shell flour in terms of feed intake by Dohne Merino rams was: 60g FSF/kg > 40g FSF/kg > 20gFSF/kg > 0g FSF/kg. In the second experiment, a total of twenty-four (n=24) Dohne Merino rams of about 8 to 9 months old, weighing 19.8 ± 0.43 kg were confined in individual pens for a period of 100 days. The rams were subjected to four varying inclusion levels of fossil shell flour (0g/kg, 20g/kg, 40g/kg and 60g/kg. Water and feed intake were recorded throughout the period of successive feeding. Blood samples were collected on days 0, 45 and 90. The parameters studied included the average daily water intake (ADWI), average feed intake (ADFI), skin temperature (ST), respiration rate (RR), pulse rate (PR), rectal temperature (RT), total plasma protein (TPP), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV). The inclusion levels of FSF affected both the ADWI and ADFI, showing a high-water intake and feed intake in rams subjected to 40g/kg of FSF followed by 60g FSF/kg, 20g FSF/kg and 0g FSF/kg (P< 0.01) respectively. All the physiological parameters ST, RT, RR, HR and PR decreased with an increase in the inclusion levels of FSF (P< 0.01). The TPP increased as the levels of FSF increased (P< 0.01). The MCHC was low in rams subjected to 60g FSF/kg and in 0g to 40g FSF/kg TPP increases as levels of FSF increases (P< 0.01). This study concluded that supplementing with various inclusion levels of FSF had a positive effect on feed preference. The FSF also showed the ability to mitigate heat stress in Dohne Merino rams.Item Bone, liver and muscle mineral composition of Bontebok, Blesbok and Impala species harvested from different regions(University of Fort Hare, 2021) Mpangele, Papama; Hoffman, L.C.; Marias, J.; Gajana, C.S.The aim of the study was to investigate the mineral concentration of different game species, harvested in different regions. Bone, liver and muscle (Longissimus thoracis et lumborum) mineral composition of game animals (bontebok, Damaliscus pygargus pygargus; blesbok, Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi; and impala, Aepyceros melampus) were investigated. The muscle of all three animals were also analysed for their proximate (moisture, protein, lipid, ash) chemical composition. Impala animals were harvested in three different production systems (intensive, semi-extensive and extensive production systems) and in different regions (Castle de Wildt in Limpopo, South Africa; Mount Etjo in Otjozondjupa, Namibia; and Bredasdorp in Western Cape, South Africa) whilst bontebok and blesbok were harvested in the Western Cape from two different extensive farms. The proximate results for all species ranged between 73.68 – 75.72% moisture, 21.41 – 24.15% protein, 1.44 – 2.38% fat and 1.14 – 1.35% ash. The mineral results showed significant concentrations of Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), Vanadium (V), Antimony (Sb), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Lead (Pb), and Silicon (Si) micro minerals in the rib of all three (bontebok, blesbok, and impala) species. Whilst the liver had high concentrations of Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Selenium (Se), Molybdenum (Mo), and Mercury (Hg) for all species. Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Arsenic (As), and Cadmium (Cd) concentrations differed in species and animal samples. Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn) were high in concentrations for all bontebok animal samples and were very low in the blesbok animal samples. However, impala had high levels of Fe and Zn in the rib. The results also showed that mineral concentrations differed in impala harvested in different production systems. Extensively reared impala from the Western Cape had high concentrations of Cr, Fe, Co, Zn, As, Se, Sr, Mo, Hg, and Si, whereas impala from an extensive system in Namibia had high concentrations of Al, V, Cr, Mn, As, Mo, Hg, and Pb. Impala reared under intensive conditions from Limpopo had high concentrations of V, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, As, and Ba, whereas the semiextensively reared impala from Limpopo had high concentrations of Mn, Fe, Zn, and Ba. The macro minerals from impala from Namibia were found to be very low concentrations as compared to those from Limpopo and the Western Cape. It can therefore, region/production system type does have an effect on the concentration of minerals in these animal samples.Item Effects of bush encroachment intensity on herbaceous vegetation and soil quality indicators in semi-arid savannah rangelands of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa(University of Fort Hare, 2024-07) Mgushelo, Inga; Finca, A.; Mpendulo, C.T.; Tjelele, J.Bush encroachment reduces herbaceous productivity and diversity, leading to a decline in grazing capacity and soil quality, thereby causing rangeland degradation. Therefore, this study set out to investigate the response of rangelands released from bush encroachment (specifically from Vachellia species), in the semi-arid savannah ecosystems of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. This was achieved by first examining the effects of bush thinning intensity on herbaceous vegetation and then assessing its impact on soil quality indicators. The research was conducted at the Napier Camp bush control experimental site within the University of Fort Hare Honey Dale Research Farm in Alice, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The bush control experimental trial covered two hectares and was divided into 15 sub-plots with bush thinning at five levels applied using a selective bush thinning method. The bush encroachment levels (BEL) replicated three times were 12% (Light), 25% (Moderate), 50% (Heavy), and 75% (Severe), with 100% as the Control (no thinning applied). Herbaceous species identification and mean point-to-tuft distance (estimate of basal cover) were conducted using the step point method, while the quadrat method was used to measure grass biomass and tuft density within sub-plots of different BELs. Soil chemical properties (i.e., organic carbon, total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and physical properties (dry bulk density, temperature, and moisture) were measured by collecting thirty composite soil samples randomly at each BEL under canopy and open zones. Moisture and temperature were measured directly at each subplot. Sixty soil samples were collected randomly from open and under canopy zones to determine soil dry bulk density. A total of 15 herbaceous species were identified including 13 perennial grasses and two species classified as 'Others' (Forb and Karroo species). Among the perennial grasses, nine were Increaser species and four were Decreaser species. Decreaser species increased while Increaser species declined with rising BELs. Highly nutritious species such as Panicum maximum and Panicum stafianum were more abundant at BELs ≥50%. Statistical analyses were conducted using SAS, with ANOVA used to assess differences among BELs for each parameter, and the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was applied to compare and separate means where significant differences were detected. Grass biomass production (GBP) was significantly affected by BELs (p < 0.05), decreasing linearly with increasing BELs. GBP was significantly higher (p < 0.05) at 12% BELs (1533 kg/ha) than in other BELs, with 25%, 50%, and 75% BELs exhibiting similar GBP. Mean point-to-tuft distance (MPTD) increased proportionally (r² = 0.96) with BELs (p < 0.05), ranging from 2.3 to 4.7 cm from 12-100% BELs. Tuft density (TD) significantly decreased (r² = 0.75) with increasing BELs (p < 0.05), with 12% and 25% BELs having the highest densities (52 tufts/m² and 55 tufts/m²¸respectively). Soil data indicated fluctuating chemical and physical properties. Across BELs, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), and potassium (K) did not differ significantly (p > 0.05), except for soil phosphorus (P) (p < 0.05). The SOC, P, and K were similar between open and under canopy zones (|x̄1-x̄2| < LSD), while TN was significantly higher under the canopy zone (|x̄1-x̄2| > LSD). Soil dry bulk density, temperature, and moisture did not vary significantly with BELs (p > 0.05). However, dry bulk density and moisture were lower (|x̄1-x̄2| > LSD) under the canopy zone, while soil temperature remained similar (|x̄1-x̄2| < LSD) across treatments. Herbaceous vegetation responses to bush encroachment indicated reduced rangeland productivity and increased soil bareness. The results suggest that bush thinning between 12% and 25% BEL is necessary to restore herbaceous vegetation. The dominance of Decreaser species at lower BELs highlights the importance of controlled bush management in maintaining species composition. In terms of soil quality, most chemical and physical properties remained unaffected by bush encroachment levels, except for soil phosphorus. Improved total nitrogen under canopy zones suggests a positive effect of bush presence on nitrogen cycling. However, reduced soil bulk density and moisture under the canopy zone may have implications for water retention and soil stability in encroached areas. Overall, individual bush species and bush thinning between 12% and 25% BEL had no detrimental effects on herbaceous vegetation and on some soil quality indicators, instead appeared beneficial for maintaining herbaceous cover and promoting desirable species. These findings highlight the need for targeted bush management strategies to sustain rangeland productivity while minimizing soil degradation.Item Evaluation of the effectiveness of manual clearing methods and reseeding techniques in restoring Pteronia incana encroached communal rangelands.(University of Fort Hare, 2024) Makanya, Monelisi; Jama, K.; Mndela, M.Pteronia incana encroachment is a form of land degradation, particularly in communal rangelands of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. This species displaces the herbaceous layer, thus reducing species diversity, plant cover, and rangeland productivity. Soil chemical properties determine the efficacy of herbaceous restoration by affecting plant growth. In efforts to revert the adverse effects of shrub encroachment, a study was conducted to assess the effects of topography and P. incana canopy cover on soil chemical properties, and the effectiveness of different restoration techniques on the success of herbaceous vegetation recovery, diversity and the nutritive value of grasses. A 25-m2 square plots having a 10m interspacing were marked based on shrub encroachment levels (SELs) namely: 1) open grasslands, 2) moderate, and 3) heavily encroached, with each SEL replicated three times in lower, middle and upper slopes in the north and south facing slope aspect. Soil samples were collected at a 20-cm depth at the four corners and the centre of plot, and then were analysed for N, P, K, OC, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Mn, pH, and total cations. Thereafter, the following restoration treatments were applied on each 10-m2 square plot: 1) uprooting and reseeding (UPR), 2) uprooting only (UPO), 3) cutting and reseeding (CR), 4) cutting only (CO), and 5) untreated control (CTL), with each treatment replicated three times in north and south slope aspects. The shrub was cleared either by uprooting or cutting and the cleared plots were reseeded with a grass mixture of Panicum maximum and Eragrostis curvula seeds. Five 0.25 m2 quadrats were sampled per plot in four corners and centre of each experimental plot. Afterwards the plants within the quadrat were identified, calculated and their diameters were measured using a standard ruler. The vegetative cover was visually estimated from the quadrats before harvesting the herbaceous plant biomass. The collected data was used to determine plant density, richness and diversity. The nutritive value of reseeded grasses was analysed using an NIR spectrometer. The results revealed that the interactive effects of SEL and topography (p < 0.05) were only significant on Zn content with open grasslands in the upper slope position having two-fold higher Zn content than other encroachment levels in the same position. The interaction between the slope aspect and slope position (p < 0.05) significantly affected soil N, P, C, Mg, Zn, Mn pH, and cations. The N and OC in the lower slope in the north was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in the lower slope in the south aspect. The upper slope in the south aspect had significantly (p < 0.05) higher P and Ca than the middle slope. The Mg was higher on the lower slopes on both slope aspects, but the upper slope in the north had higher Mg than the upper slope in the south slope aspect. Zinc increased with slope position in the south aspect and the opposite was true for the north slope aspect. Slope position alone significantly affected Cu, with the upper slope having higher Cu content. Soils were slightly acidic, and total cations were higher on the south-facing slope. The results on herbaceous recovery indicated that graminoid cover was highest in all treatments compared to the control, with CR exhibiting relatively higher cover in both north and south facing slopes. Restoration treatments independently affected plant density, richness and diversity, with these parameters being lowest in the control relative to other treatments. Slope aspect, treatment, and species interacted significantly (p = 0.029) on herbaceous biomass production (BP), with CO in the north aspect attaining two-fold higher BP of non reseeded grasses compared to other treatments. Responses of reseeded species varied by slope aspect, with P. maximum attaining two-fold higher BP in CR and UPR in the north than the south slope, whereas E. curvula had higher BP in CR in the south than the north slope. Furthermore, the results revealed that the nutritive value of grasses was significantly affected by the independent effect of slope aspect and species. The north-facing slope aspect had significantly (p < 0.05) higher CP, ash, Ca, and P than the south slope aspect, except for NDF. Similarly, P. maximum had significantly (p < 0.05) higher CP, ash, Ca, and P than E. curvula. CP had a positive significant (p < 0.05) relationship with Ca (r = 0.69) and P (r = 0.68). Although the energy and ADF were not significantly (p > 0.05) affected by slope aspect and species, they had a negative significant (p < 0.05) relationship with each other (r =-0.56). Overall, the study found that P. incana encroachment had no significant effect on soil chemical properties, with topography being the primary driver of variation in soil chemical properties. Shrub clearing proved beneficial in restoring plant diversity and density, regardless of the method, reseeding, and slope aspect. However, biomass, canopy cover, and basal cover responses were influenced by slope aspects. Thus, it is suggested that the decision on restoration method should be guided by herbaceous vegetation indicators of restoration priority.Item Farmer's perception and prevalence of stock theft in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.(University of Fort Hare, 2024) Ndzungu, Kanya; Jaja, I.F.The Eastern Cape Province is largely rural and agrarian and leading in most of South African livestock population. However, stock theft is a persistent challenge affecting both communal and commercial farmers in the province and posing a persistent limitation on livestock productivity with consequences. The impact of stock theft is far-reaching, including financial losses, emotional distress, and the ability to maintain sustainable agricultural practices. This study aimed to assess farmer's perception and prevalence of stock theft in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Two separate studies were conducted for this objective: the first study was to assess farmers' perceptions of stock theft in some districts of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. About 192 pre-tested questionnaires were collected from a sample of farmers in three districts in the province, namely, Amathole, OR Tambo and Sarah Baartman. According to the findings, stock theft is significantly more likely to occur during winter (P < 0.05). About 94.8% of farmers are in the communal farming sector in the three districts visited while 5.2% were in the commercial farming. Furthermore, 81.2% of the respondents believe that the government needs to do more to combat the spread of stock theft. This study also revealed that most respondents (88.6%) agree that branding and tattooing should be made available to all registered farmers. More than 50% believe that forensic deoxyribonucleic acid should not be used to control stock theft at crime scenes. This study highlights the farmers' perceptions and knowledge of stock theft to enable policymakers to develop targeted interventions and strategies. Policing strategy must be adaptive and technologydriven to fast-track detection, prevention, and reduction of stock theft crime. The second objective of the study was to quantify the incidence and financial implications of stock theft in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The retrospective data from 2018 to 2024 stock theft was obtained from the provincial police stock theft unit, captured in Excel, transformed, and analysed using R 4.2.2 (R Core Team) version 2019 for statistical analysis. The Alfred Nzo district, with a total of 6427 (21.5%) reported cases, experienced the highest number of cases of stock theft reported amongst the eight districts of the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) from 2018 to 2024 financial year. Additionally, Alfred Nzo (27.4%) and Chris Hani (19.9%) lead the most unrecovered stolen animals compared to other districts. Cattle (42.5%) and sheep (28.7%) were the most unrecovered stolen animals under Alfred Nzo, followed by Chris Hani with cattle (24.6%) and Sheep (22.2%) and OR Tambo with cattle (14.4%) and sheep (25.9%) unrecovered of stolen animals. Sheep was the most stolen animal with a total number of 119 404 (57.1%) with a loss of 148m (11 041 352.97 USD), followed by goat being the second most species with a total number of 51 881(24.8%) with an estimated loss of 104m (5 790 695.00 USD). The overall loss of stolen animals is 715m (39 494 283.6 USD), with a high percentage loss of 93.1% of stolen and not recovered animals. This study exposed a gap between the government, the South African Police Service, and farmers regarding the impact of stock theft in the Eastern Cape Province. Additionally, this study provides the outline and baseline of the widespread issue of stock theft in the province that has been ignored for too long. There is still a need for further research on strategies to prevent stock theft and an overview research of stock theft, especially in the Eastern Cape Province.Item Climate-smart potential of cattle feedlots as a holistic approach to mitigate enteric methane emission, gastro-intestinal parasites and optimize weight management in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa(University of Fort Hare, 2024-10) Mpofu, Beautiful Isabel; Jaja, I.F.; Slayi, M.This study investigates the climate-smart potential of cattle feedlots as a comprehensive strategy to mitigate enteric methane emissions, address gastrointestinal parasites, and optimize weight management in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Despite the growing significance of these issues, farmers’ perceptions regarding communal feedlots as a tool to reduce enteric methane emissions remain underexplored. Structured questionnaires were distributed among 161 smallholder farmers, revealing that while 67.7% were aware of feedlots, only 19.9% participated due to a lack of knowledge about feedlot operations. Many farmers (53.8%) did not perceive feedlots as a practical approach to mitigating methane emissions, citing factors such as poor feed quality and a lack of technical knowledge. The study emphasizes the pivotal role of financial resources and education levels in influencing farmers’ willingness to adopt feedlots. The findings underscore the need for targeted educational initiatives and support systems to enhance awareness and promote feedlot adoption among farmers. In addition, the study conducted a comparative analysis of faecal egg count, weight gain, and body condition scores in feedlot and non-feedlot cattle. The results, drawn from 120 cattle of different age and sex groups, farms, and breeds from two commercial abattoirs (EA1 and EA2), demonstrated the potential of feedlots to enhance animal health and productivity. Non feedlot cattle at EA1 exhibited higher egg per gram (EPG) values (323.3±28.9) than feedlot cattle (73.3±13.3), indicating increased susceptibility to internal parasitic infections. While weight gains were similar between feedlot (298.1±4.7) and non-feedlot cattle (287.16±7.79), body condition scores were significantly better in feedlot cattle (P< 0.05). Moreover, the study identified that the feedlot farms of origin had a significant effect (P< 0.05) on EPG and body condition score values in EA1, with no significant effect in EA2. The negative correlation between EPG and body condition scores suggests that as parasite load increases, there may be a subtle tendency for body condition to decrease. The study calls for further research to comprehend the factors influencing differences in non-feedlot cattle for informed decision-making in livestock management.Item Investigating communal farmer’s perceptions on production practices and evaluating pre-slaughter responsiveness of extensively reared Boran and Nguni steers.(University of Fort Hare, 2020-01) Guzi, Anelisa; Njisane, Y.Z.; Gajana, S.This study's overall objective was to investigate communal farmers' perceptions on production practices and evaluate pre-slaughter responsiveness of extensively reared Boran and Nguni steers. On objective one farmers’ knowledge and perceptions on cattle breeds, management, and marketing channels in selected villages of Alice, Eastern Cape, South Africa were evaluated. Interviews were conducted using a structured questionnaire divided into demographic information and relevant cattle production practices, following a snowball technique to select 101 cattle-keeping households from Gaga, Ntselamanzi, and Ncerha villages. Most of the interviewed cattle farmers were males (65%), in the age range of 40-60 years, with a primary-matric educational level. Among others, they highlighted financial security (47%) and traditional ceremonies (26%) as the reasons for keeping cattle. Most dominant in their herds were the Boran (49%) and crossbreds (23%) reared extensively with some supplementation (nutritional and medicinal). Their breed selection was based on disease and tick tolerance, temperament, and product (milk and meat) quality. It was noted that most of the interviewed cattle owners have the basic knowledge of good management practices, breed differences, and marketing chains. They related to low productivity to diseases, lack of knowledge, and poor resources. On the second objective pre-slaughter blood-based stress indicators and their subsequent effects were evaluated on beef quality of extensively reared Nguni and Boran steers . Twenty steers (10 Nguni and 10 Boran) aged 18 months were divided into two groups (with 5 of each breed per group) and transported from the University of Fort Hare Honeydale farm to the East London abattoir in the morning and afternoon trips. Upon each steer's jugular vein at the farm before transportation, upon arrival at the abattoir, and during slaughter to perform cortisol, glucose, and routine haematological analysis. M. longissimus dorsi samples were harvested on the left side of each carcass to measure the meat quality attributes. Interactions between the observed production-stage activities, breeds, and physiological changes of these steers were recognized; with cortisol and glucose increasing (P ≤ 0.05) during transportation (4.15±0.46 ng/mL and 5.35±0.46nmol/L respectively) and also with farm group 1 showing higher cortisol (42.62±14.47 ng/mL) than the second group. Furthermore, all steers that were in slaughter group 1 showed less cortisol (101.49±14.47 ng/mL) and glucose (6.50±14.47 nmol/L) levels than those in group 2. In addition, Boran steers had higher packed cell volume, erythrocyte count, and haemoglobin values (33.27±0.54 %, 7.66±0.19 106 µL, and 11.15±0.16 g/dl respectively) compared to Nguni steers in all production-stages. Later in the experiment, the effect of breed type, production stage activities (farm handling, transportation, and lairage duration), and stress responsiveness on some meat quality parameters (pH, lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), hue, Chroma, thawing and cooking loss, and tenderness) collected from the steers were measured. It was observed that the group lairaged for 16 hours produced the highest L* value (36.25±0.88) compared to those lairaged for 24 hours. As for the b* and hue of the meat, there were positive interactions between the breed type and the production stages (p<0.05). Lastly, cooking loss and tenderness were significantly affected by the breed type in all groups, with Nguni having the most tender meat (24.06±1.39 %) and less cooking loss (16.92±1.33 %) than Boran breeds. Therefore, the production stage conditions and breed type influenced some physiological stress-indicators and meat quality of Boran and Nguni steers raised on natural pastures. However, there were not many differences observed between the groups and breeds.Item Alternative remedies used by resource-limited farmers in the treatment and manipulation of the reproductive system of non-descript goats in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Rwodzi, MaxwellThis study was carried out to determine alternative approaches used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and in the treatment of reproduction ailments of goats in Mount Frere area, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Furthermore, information on farmer perceptions pertaining to these practices was also gathered. A questionnaire survey was conducted to determine materials used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and treat reproductive ailments. The survey revealed 10 plant species that were commonly used for reproductive health in goats. Elephantorrhizza elephantina (37.1%) and Rhoicissus tomentosa (25.7%) were the most frequently cited plant species. Elephantorrhiza elephantina and R. tomentosa recorded the highest Fidelity Level (FL) values of 92.86% and 75% respectively, for their use in the treatment of reproductive ailments and these were the plants on which further studies were conducted. The study also revealed that farmers had different perceptions on the effectiveness of the traditional medicines. An in-vivo assessment was done to determine efficacy of E. elephantina and R.tomentosa using serum estradiol and progesterone profiles. The highest (P<0.05) serum estradiol and progesterone concentration was observed in animals administered with aqueous extracts of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa mixture while the least (P<0.05) concentrations were observed in the negative control group. Does administered with a mixture of aqueous E. elephantina and R. tomentosa extract had the highest (P<0.05) body weight (65 kg) as well as body condition scores, while the negative control which were administered with distilled water had the least body weights (54 kg) and body condition scores. Does that were administered with a mixture of E.elephantina and R. tomentosa were all pregnant with twins (100%), confirmed by a doppler ultrasound scan.Item Socio-economic contribution and health challenges of indigenous chickens in smallholder systems(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Zamxaka, Chuma WandeIndigenous chickens are kept for various socio-economic purposes by the majority of households in the developing countries. However, their contribution to the livelihoods of the households has been observed by a number of researchers to be bolow their potential. Therefore, main objective of this study was to determine the contribution of the indigenous chickens towards the livelihoods of the rural people and to establish the health challenges of these chickens. The study was conducted in two phases and in two villages, a coastal one (Gcina) and inland site (Ngcingcinikhwe). Phase one was through the use of a structured questionnaire, while phase two included the seasonal collection of specimens and lab analyses to determine disease and parasite prevalence patterns. The location and seasonal effects on disease and parasite prevalence were analyzed. In the first phase of the study, the socio-economic statuses of the two communities were measured by determination of household income levels, main source of income and food security status. The main source of income in 80 percent of households was government social welfare grants and the average food security scores, which are indicative of the application of food shortage coping strategies, were 22.8 and 27.3 in Gcina and Ngcingcinikhwe, respectively. In addition, the contribution of indigenous chickens to the livelihoods of selected locations was measured by investigation of selling and consumption frequencies of indigenous chickens and their eggs. It was observed that in Gcina and Ngcingcinikhwe, 55 percent and 48 percent of households sold chickens, respectively, while 11 percent and 15 percent of households sold eggs in Gcina and Ngcingcinikhwe, respectively. Furthermore, 90 percent and 78.7 percent of households in Gcina and Ngcingcinikhwe, respectively, consumed indigenous chicken meat once a month while 77.8 percent and 72.4 percent of households in Gcina and Ngcingcinikhwe, respectively, consumed eggs once a month. In addition, average flock sizes observed in Gcina and Ngcingcinikhwe were 8.3 and 10.4 chickens, respectively, and chickens were allowed to scavenge for their feed with maize offered as the only supplement. An average of 11.6 and 11.7 eggs were set for hatching in Gcina and Ngcingcinikhwe, respectively, and the average hatching rate was 78.4 percent in Gcina while it was 71.8 percent in Ngcingcinikhwe. However, the average chick survival rate to growing phase was 55 percent in Gcina and 59.5 percent in Ngcingcinikhwe. This low chick survival rate was attributed to disease and parasite infestation. Furthermore, the respondents mentioned respiratory and nervous symptoms as the most commonly observed disease symptoms while worm infestation was least mentioned as a health challenge. Furthermore, the respondent alluded to the fact that symptoms of ill-health were mostly observed in summer and autumn. However, scientific determination of disease and parasite prevalence mostly contradicted the assertions of the respondents with regards to disease and parasite prevalence patterns as chickens had the lowest Newcastle disease (NCD) antibody levels in spring. Therefore, this was the season when they were most likely to exhibit NCD symptoms. Further observation was that the proximity to the coast did not have an effect on the level of NCD antibodies observed in chickens. Furthermore, de-wormed chickens had higher NCD antibody levels for a longer period compared to the those that were vaccinated only. It was, therefore, concluded that helminthes had a negative effect on the NCD antibody response to vaccination. To this end, an investigation of the prevalence of the helminthes revealed that there were three helminthes species (Railetina spp., Ascaridia galli and Heterakis gallinarum) were dominant during all seasons. However, the highest helminthes prevalence was observed in the inland location (Ngcingcinikhwe) in autumn. Futhermore, Salmonella positive feacal samples were reported in winter (20 percent) and summer (10 percent) in Gcina, whereas in Ngcingcinikhwe they were only reported in Spring (20 percent). In addition, the Salmonella serovars that were isolated from the positive samples were Salmonella entiritidis and Salmonella typhimurium. Based on this observation, it was concluded that there was a very low salmonella prevalence in the indigenous chickens of the two locations. In contrast, ecto-parasites were observed to be highly prevelant in both locations with season and proximity to the coast having effects on the species prevalence. Menopon gallinae exhibited the highest prevalence (90 percent) in the costal location in autumn whereas the fleas species (Echidnophaga gallenacea) was most prevalent in the inland area during spring. Furthermore, tick species (Amblyoma hebraeum) was most prevalent (70 percent) in the coastal area in spring and autumn, whereas another tick species (Argus spp) was most prevalent (40 percent) in the inland location in winter. In conclusion indigenous chickens had an insignificant contribution to the livelihoods of the people in the two study site due to health challenges that kept the flock sizes small and the production low. The health challenges were observed to differ by location and season. To this end, for an effective indigenous chicken health management strategy to be developed, the seasonal prevalence of diseases and parasites in a particular location needs to be established.Item Sheep flock structure, dynamics, management practices, and wool production under bush encroached and non-encroached areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Kom, LubabaloThe main objective of the study was to investigate sheep productivity under bush encroached and non-encroached areas. The study was conducted in two communal areas, namely Idutywa (Mbewuleni village), which represented an open grassland with no encroaching woody species, and Alice (Sheshegu village) which was a bush encroached site. The purposive sampling method was used to select farmers with wool producing sheep who participated in the study. Experiment one employed a structured questionnaire to collect data on sheep flock composition, dynamics and management practices. A total number of 147 respondents were interviewed (73 in Mbewuleni village and 74 in Sheshegu village). The surveys revealed that just above three quarters of the households were male headed with close to half of the respondents being pensioners. Extensive farming was the production system employed across the two villages with community grazing as their source of feed. The sheep were allowed to graze separately during the grazing period with no other livestock such as cattle. The farmers experienced feed shortage, especially in the winter months and they prioritized feeding their lambs and ewes during this period. Shearing was done once a year in September or October. In both villages there was no controlled breeding and the lambing occurred during the winter period. It was found that the non-encroached site (Idutywa) had a significantly (P<0.05) higher number of sheep with 14% of the households having numbers above 121 sheep, while in Sheshegu about 8% of household above 121sheep. The major causes of mortality across the villages were cold weather, drought, predation and diseases. The interviewed households across the two villages mentioned that they dipped their sheep monthly. In the second study, a sample of 110 non-descript sheep breeds were randomly selected from the two villages (10 of each sex and each age group (which is 2 teeth, 4 teeth and 6 teeth) from each village with the exception of the 4 teeth old ewes from Sheshegu). The fleece samples were obtained from the selected sheep in October. The quantity and quality were determine based on wool weight, fibre diameter, colour, staple length, and clean wool. The results of the data analysis showed that the site had a statistically significant (P<0.05) difference on wool quantity between Sheshegu and Mbewuleni villages (2.8164kg and 1.6940kg), whilst the difference based on sheep sex was not significant (P>0.05), respectively. The older sheep produced significantly (P<0.05) higher amounts of wool compared to the younger animals. Wool quality was shown to be affected by locality in all parameters except for comfort factor. The clean yield effects were observed to be particularly more significant (P<0.05) when it came to the clean yield with Sheshegu sheep producing greater clean yield than their Mbewuleni counterparts. There was a significant (P<0.05) differences in the interaction of village and sex for crimp length (males had higher values) whereas that of village and age did not affect (P>0.05) the yield and crimp length. It was concluded from this study that age, sex and weight are the factors that affected wool production (quantity and quality). However, differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05) for effects of sex on wool quantity. Wool quality on the other hand was shown to be dependent on locality across all parameters with the exception of the comfort factor. Clean yield was higher in encroached as compared to non-encroached site. The conclusions from the study were that locality affected sheep flock structure and dynamics, because the encroached site had fewer numbers of sheep compared to the non-encroached site. In addition, the quantity and quality of wool produced differed with site, encroached site values being significantly different (P<0.05) to that from the non-encroached site.Item Effects of dietary supplementation on physico-chemical and consumer sensory characteristics of chevon from South African indigenous goat genotypes(University of Fort Hare, 2010) Xazela, Nomasonto MarthaThe study was conducted at the University of Fort Hare farm to assess the effect of dietary supplementation on physico-chemical and consumer sensory characteristics of chevon from South African indigenous goat genotypes. Forty-eight 6-month-old Xhosa lop-eared (XLE), Nguni (NGN), Xhosa-Boer cross (XBC) and Boer (BOR) castrated goats with a body weight range from 20 to 25 kg were used in this study. Half of the goats in each genotype were supplemented with 200g/head/day of sunflower cake. The other half of goats in each genotype was not supplemented. The goats were slaughtered at day 90 to determine slaughter weight (SLW), cold dress mass (CDM), meat colour, cooking loss, meat pH and Warner-Bratzler (WB) shear force values. Furthermore, a consumer sensory evaluation of cooked or fried chevon from supplemented and non-supplemented goats was conducted with consumers of different ages, tribes and gender. The XLE and NGN goats had higher pH24 (P < 0.05) than BOR and XBC goats. Supplemented BOR goats had higher L* values than their non-supplemented counterparts (P < 0.05). The other meat quality attributes in XLE and NGN were comparable to those in meat from the Boer goat. Female respondents gave higher (P < 0.05) sensory scores than male respondents for both cooked and fried meat on aroma intensity. Shona consumers gave higher (P < 0.05) aroma intensity scores than the Xhosa and the Zulu consumers for both cooked and fried meat. In the non-supplemented goats, fried meat for all genotypes was superior (P < 0.05) to the cooked meat for initial impression of juiciness. Age and gender of respondents and thermal treatment influenced initial impression of juiciness scores (P < 0.05). The quality of chevon from XLE and NGN was comparable to that of the Boer goat, and dietary supplementation improved most meat quality attributes. Chevon from the supplemented goats had higher consumer sensory scores than chevon from the non-supplemented goats.Item Characterization of village chicken health and management practices in the Amatola Basin of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.(University of Fort Hare, 2011) Nyoni, Njongenhle Mhlanhlandlela BernardThe majority of rural households in South Africa own village chickens which contribute significantly to their livelihoods. However, limited research has been conducted to characterize, understand and develop village chicken production in South Africa. This hinders the designing and implementation of village chicken-based developmental programmes that will benefit farmers in rural areas. Thus, it is imperative to initiate studies to describe village chicken production. This study was conducted to characterize village chicken production in Amatola Basin of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Baseline information was gathered using a questionnaire survey of 81 identified from 7 out of 13 villages using snowball sampling technique. Consequently, 20 households were selected to participate in a monitoring study (from July 2010 to June 2011) through purposive sampling. Most (60%) chicken flocks were owned by women and mainly raised to meet household food requirements. Some (28.4%) farmers occasionally sold cocks and hens to neighbours, at an average price of R50 (USD7.55) per bird, as a way of culling their flocks and generating income. However, village chickens were mainly kept for food security rather than for their terminal benefit of cash. Although, all chicken flocks were produced under the scavenging feeding system, most (96%) flocks were provided with supplementary feed and drinking water. A majority (93.8%) of households also provided some form of shelter for their chickens. The mean cock to hen to chick ratio was 1:5:15. On average, each household owned 17 (±2 S.E.M.) chickens, and hens had 3.3 clutches per annum. Chicks hatched and chickens received as gifts represented the flock entries, while exits included mortality, consumption, sales and gifts or donations, in that order. Generally, both exits and entries were more pronounced in the summer season than in other seasons. Most (81.5%) farmers experienced chicken losses due to predation and health related problems. Parasitism ranked high amongst the village chicken health challenges. During monitoring, the endoprasites identified included nematodes, cestodes and protozoa. Coccidia were the most prevalent endoparasites. The chickens were also infested with a variety of ectoparasites namely: mites, lice, fleas and ticks. The sticktight flea Echidnophaga gallinacean was the most prevalent species. Although ectoparasite infestations were most pronounced in summer, almost all chickens harbored one or more of these parasites throughout the study period. The prevalence and intensity of parasite infestations were significantly (P<0.05) higher in the summer season compared to the other seasons. This was followed by the autumn, spring and winter seasons, respectively. The majority (77.5%) of farmers resorted to alternative remedies, mostly medicinal plants, for treating diseases and controlling parasites. Medicinal plants were used because they were locally available, cheap and perceived to be effective. Therefore, village chicken production in the rural Eastern Cape Province is characterised by several challenges which counter the significant role chickens play in the livelihood of rural households.Item Sheep production practices, flock dynamics, body condition and weight variation in two ecologically different resource-poor communal farming systems.(University of Fort Hare, 2010) Mapiliyao, LukeThe objective of this study was to determine sheep production practices, constraints, flock dynamics, body condition and weight variation in two ecologically different resource-poor communal farming systems of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Mean sheep flock sizes per household were not significantly different between the two ecologically different areas (villages); Gaga (19.0±3.10) and Sompondo (18.3±3.10). Shortage of feed, disease and parasite were reported the most important constraints across the two villages. In both villages, sheep housing was poorly constructed using acacia brushwoods. Fewer farmers owned rams: the rams to ewes ratio for the two villages were 1:20, 1:19 for Gaga and Sompondo, respectively. The low ram: ewe ratios reported suggest that inbreeding might have been reducing productivity of their flocks. There was also uncontrolled breeding due to undefined and mating seasons. Gall sickness, heart water and footrot caused most of the sheep mortalities. Dohne Merinos were the common genotypes in the two villages. Total entrances for each flock were higher (p < 0.05) in hot-dry season and hot-wet season than in other seasons. Most of the entrances were lambs and were born in hot-dry season (September) and cool-dry season (June) for larger flocks (10.90 ± 3.02) and for small flocks (3.65 ± 3.02). High lamb mortalities were experienced in the post-rainy (April) and hot-wet (December) season. There was a significant interaction between season and flock size. Most of the sales occurred in the hot-wet season. Ecological area had significant effect on sheep production iii potential (p < 0.05) in both flock classes. The average sheep production efficiency (SPE) value for Gaga and Sompondo were 0.50 ± 0.116 and 0.50 ± 0.096 respectively. The SPE for large flock was higher (p < 0.05) by season and flock size. Large flocks had a higher (p < 0.05) SPE values and the SPE ranged from 1.11 ± 0.193 in April, a post-rainy season month to 1.55 ± 0.193 in December, a hot-wet season month. Lamb mortalities constituted the greater part of outflows. High lamb mortalities occurred in hot-wet (December), hot-dry (September) and post-rainy (April) seasons. There was a significant interaction between season and age of sheep on body weight of sheep. Highest (p < 0.05) body weights were recorded in the post-rainy and autumn season in both lambs and ewes. It is therefore very important to come up with affordable interventions which take into play ecological differences of the areas for improved nutritional status of sheep in communal areas which will lead to improved sheep productivity and the poor-resourced farmer human nutritional and livelihood.Item Effect of pre-slaughter stress of pigs on the levels of cortisol, creatine kinase and their subsequent relationship with pork quality(2014) Nzolo, JamaThe study was conducted to determine the effect of pre-slaughter stress of pigs on the levels of cortisol, creatine kinase (CK) and their subsequent relationship with pork quality. From our knowledge, there is paucity of information on transportation, lairage duration and sex effects on saliva cortisol and its relation with serum cortisol, urine cortisol and other meat quality traits. Stage one of the study assessed the effect of sex and time to slaughter (transport and lairage duration) on the levels of cortisol and CK in crossbred pigs. The second stage of the study evaluated the effect of sex and lairage duration on pork quality. The trials comprised of 60 22-weeks old commercial crossbred pigs [(30 boars vs. 30 gilts) with an average body weight of 76.9kg for gilts and 78.3kg for boars. Thirty pigs (15 Boars vs. 15 Gilts) were slaughtered on arrival after a 120km road journey and the other 30, after travelling the same road and distance, were slaughtered after having been in the lairage for 20 hours. Saliva samples were obtained during three time periods: between 07:00-10:00 on the day before the journey, on arrival at the abattoir and after lairage. Levels of cortisol in serum and urine and CK in serum samples collected at slaughter were determined. The samples (saliva and serum) were centrifuged at 20oC for 10 min at 3550 x g and stored at -20oC in separate vials until analysis. Pork quality was assessed using muscle pH, colour, thawing and cooking losses and Warner-Bratzler Shear Force. Correlations between cortisol levels in saliva, serum and urine and meat quality were assessed. The effect of sex and time to slaughter on saliva cortisol was significant. Statistical analysis showed significant interaction of sex by time to slaughter on serum cortisol. It was only the effect of sex that demonstrated higher (P <0.05) serum creatine kinase levels in gilts. Likewise, urine cortisol was influenced (P <0.05) only by time to slaughter. Saliva cortisol after transportation (r = 0.52) was correlated (P <0.05) with urine cortisol. The study suggests that there are greater responses of the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis following time to slaughter (transport and lairage duration) between gilts and boars. This can be used in measuring cortisol in saliva, serum and urine, and serum creatine kinase to determine stress levels in pigs. Besides the lightness (L*) colour value which was significantly lower (P <0.05) in meat from gilts than from boars, the results of this study showed no interaction or individual effect (sex or lairage duration) on pH and other colour measurements. Meat cooking loss was affected (P <0.05) by gender x lairage interaction. Effect of lairage duration (as an individual effect) on the measured meat quality traits was not significant (P <0.05). Correlation analysis showed significant (P <0.05) negative relation between baseline saliva cortisol (r = -0.40) and the pork L* value. Saliva cortisol after lairage duration (r = -0.38 and r = 0.38) was correlated (P <0.05) with pH45 and pork a* value, respectively. Serum cortisol (r = -0.35) was negatively correlated (P <0.05) with pH45. Moreover, there were negative correlations (P <0.05) between saliva cortisol after transportation (r = -0.35), saliva cortisol after lairage duration (r = -0.44), serum cortisol (r = -0.40) and meat cooking loss. The study suggests that cortisol in saliva and serum can be used to determine effect of time to slaughter (transport and lairage duration) on meat quality traits from gilts and boars.