Department of Geography & Environmental Science

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A Spatio-Temporal Study of Land Degradation and Land Use/Land Cover Trends in the Upper Tyume Catchment Using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
(University of Fort Hare, 2004) Mapukati, Guilty
The study traced land degradation trends and land use changes and their relationships over time in the Upper Tyume Catchment of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. An integrated approach was used to investigate the reasons behind the occurrence of physical land degradation and how land use changes could have influenced degradation. A GIS-based soil erosion potential model and interpretation of aerial photographs (1: 10 000) spanning 47 years (1949-1996) were used to identify areas of differing soil erosion susceptibility. The erosion model used soils, slope, hydrology and land use as variables. Predicting slope areas susceptible to gully initiation was based on a 20m resolution DEM from which slope classes were computed. The modelling results were compared with aerial photo interpretation results and fieldwork.
An analysis of groundwater in Mjinchi District of Central Malawi
(University of Fort Hare, 2010) Mleta, Prince W.C
Groundwater resources is the major source of potable water in Mchinji District of Central Malawi and globally. Although the total amount of water on and under the earth‟s surface is generally assumed to have remained constant, the rapid population boom coupled with extension of agricultural farmland and industrial development are putting pressure and stress on the quality and quantity of water resources. In principal therefore, „use and discard‟ philosophy in water resources cannot be subscribed (Lloyd, 1999). The situation ultimately calls for rational management of water resources to ensure its sustainability. Water intended for human consumption must be free from organisms that are the causative agents of diseases and must not contain chemical substances at concentrations that may be hazardous to human health. In addition drinking water should be aesthetically acceptable, free from unpleasant taste, color, odor and turbidity. Drinking water should also be free from bacteria and viruses whose presence would indicate fecal contamination. Some are known to be toxic and their concentrations must be below acceptable value, taking into account that drinking water is but one of the several pathways by which substances enters the body. Due to perceived concerns of over extraction and rapid water resources depletion, optimal management of groundwater resources are now receiving much attention. Their associated literatures have taken quite different approaches both philosophically and operationally to the analysis of how groundwater should be managed, allocated and cared for spatially and temporally. This study investigated the spatial and temporal fluctuations of concentrations of chemical and biological substances in groundwater such as pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, iron, fluoride, manganese, chloride, sulfates, sodium and fecal coliform in Mchinji District of Central Malawi. Through examination and analysis of static water levels as an indicator of water table fluctuations, groundwater availability was also measured. It was found that anthropogenic activities on the landscape can impact the quality and quantity of the water resources in this area and this impact on the various sectors of the inhabitant‟s livelihoods. Groundwater in Mchinji is composed of a number of chemical and biological elements whose origin is either from the material in which it percolates through, or stored before exploitation. Anthropogenic activities in this area plays a role in the quality and quantity of groundwater through land use and land cover change as evidenced by comparisons of Landsat Thematic Mapper™ satellite images over different time scales. In Mchinji no regular groundwater monitoring is being done indicating a deficiency in sustainability interventions of the resource. This study calls for integrated and sustainable water resources management and coordinated efforts amongst water users, local councils, regulatory authorities and environmental policy makers. Of far greater importance in groundwater sustainability analysis is the issue of groundwater monitoring. It is imperative therefore to preserve the resource while preservation is still possible. Groundwater is now turning into „blue gold‟ and becoming a highly sought-after commodity. It should, however, be utilized sustainably to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
An assessment of hourly rainfall on Sub-Antarctic Marion Island and the implications for climate change
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Ndwayamato, Fhumulani Perseverance
Hourly rainfall data from the South African Weather Service for the meteorological station on the eastern side of Marion Island were assessed (1995-2009) to investigate trends in rainfall intensity. For all categories the annual frequency of hourly rainfall shows no statistically significant increase or decrease over the recording period. This is in contrast to long-term change over the last forty years where the climate of Marion Island has changed significantly. The lack of change over the last 15 years may indicate stability with regards to annual rainfall. However, even though the frequency of hours with no rainfall for the recording period shows no linear temporal trend, significant increase in hours with no rainfall occurred during the summer months. From synoptic charts and data it is suggested that high intense hourly rainfall is associated with a strong cut-off low pressure system over Marion Island extending meridionally in a north-westerly direction. Mean air pressure is low and the meridional component in the dominant airflow explains the high humidity and suggests the potential to bring in a northerly maritime tropical air from lower latitudes west or north-east of the island. Climate change implications for hourly rainfall on Marion Island show various opposing trends. A decrease in low pressure systems and increase in anticyclonic conditions will increase the number of hours without rainfall (as seen from the data) especially in summer. A further implication is that the number of intensive hourly rainfall events could also decrease. However the possibility exist that Marion Island is becoming wetter and the data indicate that hourly rainfall over the last decade show an increase during the summer months. Further research is needed to ascertain the current rainfall trends on Marion Island.
An assessment of water security and hydrology resources in the face of climate variability : the case study of Nkonkobe Local Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Pindura, Tineyi Herbert
South Africa is regarded as a semi-arid and water scarce country due to its low annual precipitation with a mean annual rainfall of 490mm. This study seeks to assess the effects of water security in the face of climate variability on hydrological resources in Nkonkobe Local Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa. The main objective of the research was to investigate climate variability parameters affecting water security in the Nkonkobe Local Municipality. The variability and trends in rainfall and temperature were analysed using descriptive statistics. Bivariate (Pearson) Correlation analysis was used to describe the effect of rainfall distribution and reservoir’s holding capacity. A vulnerability index model was applied to determine the water security status in the study area. The results showed that the inter-annual rainfall variability trends are not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level since the P = 0,197. This means that there is no relationship in the inter-annual rainfall variability trends. The regression model is represented by y = 3.0184x + 70.329 with R² = 0.0499 suggests that there is a weak linear relationship. The intra – annual rainfall variability over time is not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level means that there is no strong relationship in the intra – annual rainfall variability trends. From the linear regression the precipitation concentration index (PCI) decreased from 14.1 to 12.4 mm. The rainfall distribution and reservoir holding capacity of Binfield reservoir test of significance was positive (p value: 0.01) indicating that the two variables had a strong relationship and same is for Kat River reservoir which has a statistically significant linear relationship (p <.005).Temperature distribution and reservoir holding capacity of Kat River and Binfield reservoir have a statistically significant linear relationship (p < 0.01) and (p ‹ .005) respectively. The Binfield Reservoir has high resilience to climate variability, but the magnitude of impact could be managed as it falls under Type IV where there is Low Impact. Kat River and Binfield reservoirs faces great exposure or sensitivity, this is evidenced by the reservoir holding capacity that is in the Type I of the vulnerability index. The vulnerability index showed that the reservoirs water security is highly vulnerable. One of the key findings of this research was that vulnerabilities to form and function can be linked. For example, where reservoir level fluctuations change in response to the change in the climate variabilities, this affects the water security of the reservoirs. The findings illustrate the importance to enhance adaptation efforts both at the micro (Nkonkobe Local Municipality) and macro (national) levels, particularly for communities where the reservoirs are more vulnerable to climate variability.
Blue flag beaches in the Eastern Cape: implications for tourism, the environment and socio-economy
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Silwana, Holdnald Leslie Simphiwe
The Blue Flag programme in South Africa is managed by the Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE). The main objective of the Blue Flag is to improve the understanding of the coastal environment and to promote the incorporation of environmental issues in the decision making process. Blue Flag programmes promote sustainable development in fresh water and marine areas and this programme challenges the beach operators and Municipalities to achieve high standard of water quality, environmental education and information, environmental management and safety and services. The study seeks to investigate the effects of the Blue Flag award on the environment and tourism at selected Eastern Cape beaches. The research was conducted on the following beaches Gonubie in East London, Middle beach in Kenton on Sea, Wells in Port Elizabeth and Cape St Francis in Kouga municipality. This study employed qualitative research methods with interviews that were conducted and secondary information from WESSA that were analysed. This study suggests that Blue Flag programme should receive support from the Municipal councillors so that they provide all the necessary support to the programme. One of the key findings are that Municipalities that source funding elsewhere for the Blue Flag award (under one of the National Departments Coast Care projects) are more successful in retaining the award. The study recommends that the public should be educated on how to keep the beaches clean and safe. Business owners have confirmed that they receive benefits in having the Blue Flag in their areas and it has been evident that the Blue Flag has contributed to the socio-economy of the area, and there is an increase in tourists. Business owners iv need to be encouraged to assist in making sure that the beaches receive and retain the award. There is a need to educate the public about the Blue Flag and the public have to be encouraged to keep the beaches clean and to take ownership of their beaches.
Community-Based Ecotourism for Conservation and Development in Lesotho: A Case of Ha-Kome
(University of Fort Hare, 2008-06) Maanela, Maanela Thabelo
This study evaluates the potential for community-based ecotourism as conservation and development strategy in Kome village, which is an unprotected area. The study adopts the ecotourism concept to illustrate how community based ecotourism can be a tool for conservation and development in poor rural communities.
Creating a safe learning environment in two schools in the Butterworth District, Eastern Cape
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Vokozela, Zandile
This study focuses on the creation of a safe learning environment at two schools in the Butterworth District of the Eastern Cape in South Africa. The two schools are Ndabankulu Senior Secondary School and Butterworth High School. The study is of a comparative design and aims to assist the communities of Ndabankulu Senior Secondary School, and Butterworth High School to improve health, safety and security issues of their children by reducing their exposure to environmental risks while attending school. An ethnographic study was used to collect data and the study employed questionnaires, document analysis and interviews as methods of collecting data. The primary aim of this study was to assess whether the school is still a safe place for learning and teaching to take place without fear and harm so that both learners and teachers can attain growth and development. Physical risks were assessed through observation and document analysis. Interviews were conducted with the senior members of staff while questionnaires were issued to eighty learners and were all returned back for analysis. The content analysis and interpretation yielded findings that suggests that hazards that may harm the development of learners at Ndabankulu S.S.S. and Butterworth High school exist. The study concludes that it is crucial that strategies and necessary interventions be set up and implemented to ensure that all stakeholders perceive school safety as an important aspect, both for the benefit of the school and that of the wider society. The barriers to school safety, specifically to both schools in this study need to be attended to. The study has presented findings that are consistent with those of other studies which emphasized that if barriers to school safety are identified, confronted and tackled, the schools could benefit positively from effects of involving everyone to create a safe learning environment. The conditions under which learners receive education in South Africa have to be closely and constantly monitored by Departmental officials. Teachers and managers need to be trained in their duties so that schools become places where learners are safe and enjoy reaching their future goals.
Environmental Education for Sustainable Utilisation of Natural Resources: The Case of selected Secondary Schools in Soweto
(University of Fort Hare, 2003-01) Cyril, Buhlungu M.
In South Africa, particularly in Soweto secondary schools environmental education has never enjoyed the Same Status as other established subjects such as Geography, Biology and History. This has resulted in learners losing interest in environmental education. There is a lack of environmental education at secondary schools that results in a lack of environmental awareness amongst learners. This study seeks to recommend the integration of environmental education within the policies of the Gauteng Department of Education thereby contributing towards the establishment of environmental education as an independent subject in secondary schools.
environmental factors influencing ecotonal changes in an indigenous forest in the Keiskammahoek forest estate, eastern cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Kiva, Luthando
This study investigates environmental factors influencing ecotonal changes in the Dontsa Forest Management Unit (FMU) of the Keiskammahoek Estate Forest which is located in the Amatole Mountains of the Eastern Cape in the Republic of South Africa. The patterns of forest edge movement were analysed to show trends of forest edge movement from 1975 to 1985, 1975 to 1992, 1975 to 2002, 1975 to 2014, 1985 to 1992, 1985 to 2002, 1985 to 2014, 1992 to 2002, 1992 to 2014 and 2002 to 2014 by digitizing and assessing the scale of forest edge movement using georeferenced aerial photographs. Belt transects were established in six sites that were selected on the basis of physiographic elements for determination of the driving forces of forest ecotonal changes. The results of the study show that the forest edge moved positive towards the grassland biome while in other sites there was contraction of the forest edge from 1975 to 2014. The findings of the study show that some forest patches moved with few individual pioneer species towards the grassland while indigenous species dominated in the ecotone area of the forest in other research sites. D whyteana, A latifolius, R melanophloes, A facultus, R prenoides, C aurea, C bispinosa, C inerme, and S martina are the plant species with high density in the forest ecotone while A latifolius, R prenoides, R melanophloes were highly distributed along the grassland area. The results also show that harvesting of Pinus patula and illegal harvesting of understory species are major factors that result in ecotonal changes of Dontsa FMU. The research sites adjacent to residential areas have experienced reduction of ecotone area as compared to the research sites in high altitude areas of the Amathole Mountains where there is less disturbance. The eastern facing aspect of the forest exhibited a high density of plants in the forest ecotone as compared to the west facing slope.
Human trafficking in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2011) Ngwira, Callings Major
Human trafficking has been reported to be on the increase in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa with girls as young as ten years old being trafficked from and within the Province for sexual and labour purposes, and marriage. Human traffickers operate in rural areas, small towns and cities such as Port Elizabeth and East London. However, research on the role of the law enforcement authorities and the civil society organisations in the fight against trafficking in Eastern Cape Province is largely unknown. Situated within the Security Governance Theory, and using the intensive research design, this research reports on the role of the law enforcement authorities and the civil society organisations in the fight against human trafficking in Eastern Cape Province with emphasis on rural-urban differentiation. The challenges which law enforcement authorities and the civil society organisations faced are also discussed. The study, among other things, found that both the law enforcement sector and civil society organisations in the Province ensured that security, criminal justice, physical, emotional, psychological, health and spiritual needs of rescued victims of trafficking were met. The study further established that there was little progress in the fight against human trafficking, more especially in the rural areas of the Province, due to inadequate cooperation among anti-trafficking organisations and the lack of resources.
Land Management in the Wild Coast: The Case of Indigenous Peoplein Coffee Bay, Eastern Cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2008-01) Kulumba, Ahmed Mukalazi
An under-reported consequence of the democratic transition is the impact on land management (LM) within communal areas of South Africa (SA). Yet land is an essential natural resource, both for the survival and prosperity of humanity, and for the maintenance of all terrestrial ecosystems (FAO&UNEP, 1997). This study focuses on land management in the Wild Coast with special reference to indigenous people in Coffee Bay.
Land Tenure System and Agricultural Land Use: The Case of Citrus Farmers in Alice/Kat River Valley, Eastern Cape
(University of Fort Hare, 2003-01) Mpukane, Mphangeli Witness
This study investigates the decline in agricultural production in the Alice/Kat river valley of the Eastern Cape due to the fundamental problem of lack of land ownership by the black citrus farmers. The results indicate that the problems associated with the acquisition of land by blacks farmers emanate from laws that were passed by the former government to deliberately deny black people's rights to land except to work on white farms as labourers. Farmers in the Alice/Kat river valley lack land security and experience an unfavorable land tenure system. Thus farmers are unable to access the financial resources from banks to develop the land in order to alleviate poverty and improve their financial status. In addition, the lack of practical skills in land use planning among farmers has led to the under-utilization and low productivity of agricultural land in the Alice/Kat river valley. This study recommends the provision of land as security to financial access and land use skills training as essential inputs to reap the benefits of a profitable citrus industry.
A multi-dimensional assessment of land degradation in the Sterkspruit river catchment: the nexus between landscape sensitivity, land use dynamics and landscape resilience.
(University of Fort Hare, 2010) Tichagwa, Cornelius Gibson
This study sets out to assess the status and causes of land degradation in the Sterkspruit catchment of the Eastern Cape, and the extent to which this has affected the biophysical environment and rural livelihoods. The attributes of the biophysical and socio-economic environments that predispose the area to land degradation, the manifestations of land degradation and people’s responses to the dynamics of their environmental circumstances are some of the key issues of enquiry. This research pursued a multidimensional approach to land degradation assessment, looking at numerous criteria on multiple scales. The landscape-scale component of the study included detailed analysis of climatic data to provide a backdrop for land degradation. It also entailed developing and analyzing land use-land cover maps of Sterkspruit catchment, based on LANDSAT TM satellite imagery of medium resolution (30m x 30m). Ground-truthing, transect walks at several pre-selected locations, followed. Participatory rural appraisals (PRAs) and questionnaire surveys on rural livelihoods, householders’ experiences as well as their perceptions of land degradation, and their responses to it were conducted in the catchment’s villages of Magwiji and Hinana. Site-specific survey involved identifying sample sites at various stages of degradation, visually assessing them and generating degradation indices, adopting a multidimensional analysis technique using several soil- and vegetation-related variables. It also involved vegetation condition assessment through rangeland transect sampling, recording data for basal cover, species dominance, biomass productivity, and the presence of indicator species, such as decreasers and increasers. Estimates of soil loss at sites were done through measurements of gullies, rills, and pedestals, and calculation of volumes lost per unit area. In situ soil degradation was assessed through field measurement of infiltration capacity and soil penetration resistance. From the study sites, soil samples were collected and analyzed in the laboratory for soil bulk density and for the chemical indicators EC, pH, organic C, Na, K, Mg, Calcium, available P, and total P. Study results showed manifestations of land degradation in various forms. The LU-LC analysis indicated that bare ground appeared in dry seasons and in drought years; vegetation recovered with the return of the rains. The land degradation index (LDI) showed eight out of 21 sites as extremely degraded, while the rest were, seriously to moderately, degraded. The largest amounts of soil loss were from sheet erosion, followed by heavy losses from gully erosion, especially in Hinana village. Another manifestation of degradation was the loss of grazing land to gully encroachment. Soil bulk density tests showed serious compaction in four sites; the rest of the sites were either slightly compacted or not compacted. Vegetation transect surveys, showed an increase in unpalatable grass species (increaser II) and bush encroachment on grassland. Chemical indicators were as follows: EC indicated strongly saline soils; K levels were good, making plants drought-tolerant; excessive amounts of Ca and Na made the soils dispersive, predisposing them to erosion; Mg amounts were adequate; total P was high-to-medium on 13 sites, low on eight sites; organic C was low on all sites, indicating low fertility and deficiencies in N, P, and boron. Causes of degradation include sustained grazing pressure in a drought-prone environment. Residents’ responses included rehabilitating degraded land, cutting down on arable agriculture as a risk avoidance strategy, and providing supplementary feed to livestock. Livelihood changes showed a trend towards the use of communal lands for residential purposes rather than for farming, while subsisting on government grants and pensions
The role of the state and the environment in indigenous livestock farming : case study of Debe Marela, Middledrift area, Eastern Cape
(University of Fort Hare, 2011) Hashe, Luvuyo Elvis
The study focused on the role of the State and the environment in indigenous livestock farming in Debe Marela in Middledrift. Although communal farmers in the area used ethnoveterinary medicines to treat and prevent animal diseases, they also widely used conventional medicines, as these often provided a remedy to animal diseases. The livestock farmers believed in indigenous knowledge which empowered them in using herbs to a certain extent, but the latter was preferred. The Department of Agriculture has featured as a support institution and although livestock farmers in the area have participated in and benefited from state programmes, they believe that they needed more interventions such as visits from veterinary surgeons, Extension Officers and Animal Health Technicians. The study therefore attempts to address the gaps highlighted in the work of other researchers.
Soil and Water Conservation Farming Practices, in the Communal Areas of the Central Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2004-01) Mabi, Maudline
A survey was carried out to investigate the extent of use of conservation tillage practices for soil and water management under smallholder farming conditions in the central region of the Eastern Cape Province. The survey was carried out in five districts viz: Middledrift, Sada, Keiskarmahoek, Zwelitsha and Seymour. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was conducted whereby village meetings were held in each area, then a total of 45 - rural households were identified by extension officers -for participation in in-depth interviews
Stock farmers and the state. A case study of animal healthcare practices in Hertzog, Eastern Cape province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2010) Jenjezwa, Vimbai Rachel
The animal healthcare practices of most communal farmers involve the use of both conventional and ethnoveterinary medicines. This study presents information on the animal healthcare practices of stock farmers in Hertzog, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. It also presents the findings on the social, economic and political aspects surrounding animal healthcare. The research applied two theories namely structuration theory and the Context, Practice and Belief (CPB) framework. Interviews and participant observation were used to collect data. The communal farmers widely used conventional medicines however; proper administration methods were not followed. Ethnoveterinary medicines were used to prevent and treat disease, even by the younger stock farmers. The stock farmers used ethnoveterinary medicines mainly because of the lack of finance to purchase the conventional medicines, even though the latter was preferred. The stock farmers actively participated in state programmes but felt that they needed more state veterinarian visits and state provided medications because they could not afford private veterinarians and conventional medicines. Therefore, this study attempts to contribute to an understanding of the use of ethnoveterinary medicine and communal farmers’ animal healthcare practices.
The Role of Women in the Household Economy in Tzada Keristian Rural Area in the Central Zone of Eritrea
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-10) Negash, Biniam Mesghina
Eritrea gained independence after a 30 year long and bloody war in 1991. During the armed struggle 30-40 percent of the fighters were women. As a result of their great contribution to the country's independence, the new constitution guaranteed women's access to all the available resources. With this in mind this study is conducted to identify the extent to which women are involved in the household economy, apart from their roles as political participants.
The Use and Agronomic Effectiveness of Kraal Manures in the Transkei Region of the Eastern Cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2001-04) Mkile, Zolani
The Transkei region of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa has got a high agricultural potential. However, poor nutrient supply is known to be a major yield-limiting factor in this region which, is dominated by small-scale farmers. The main local source of nutrients available in the area is kraal manure, and a number of small-scale farmers are using this resource to address their soil fertility problems. However, the nutrient supply practices of the farmers and their effectiveness have hitherto not thoroughly been investigated. This study was undertaken to address this need, and to provide a basis for efficient and effective use of kraal manure for crop production by resource-poor farmers in the former Transkei.
Women and Urban Agriculture in Buffalo City: A Case Study of Mdantsane, Duncan Village and Postdam.
(University of Fort Hare, 2004-01) Phiri, Christopher
The urban poor are striving to find strategies to alleviate poverty. In South Africa, the urban poor, including women, are practising urban agriculture to alleviate poverty. Within the context of the debates on gender and development, this study explores the extent at which the urban poor of Buffalo City in the Eastern Cape, South Africa are benefiting from urban agriculture. The study highlights the challenges and problems encountered by the urban poor in the former black townships, and how the post realist research methodology was urban poor in the former black African state and the non-governmental organizations are supporting the alleviation of urban poverty. The realist research methodology was to be achieve the objectives of this study. Women dominate the practice benefiting from their endeavours. The study recommends the increased participation of the urban poor in urban agriculture and the creation of more open spaces for farming.
Workers' Perception of Occupational Safety and Health Administration Measures at Sasol Infrachem in Sasolburg
(University of Fort Hare, 2009-01) Kwayiba, Thamsanqa Felix
This is a qualitative study that seeks to explore the workers' perceptions towards the occupational safety and health administration (OSHA) system at the petrochemical industrial plant Sasol Infrachem in Sasolburg. It provides a platform for shop floor workers to express their subjective perceptions of the company's OSHA measures by answering open ended questions.

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