Faculty of Science and Agriculture

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A Comparative Study of one-step Methods for Numerical Solution of Initial- Value Problems in Ordinary Differential Equations
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-02) Kama, Phumezile
The ultimate aim of the field of Numerical Analysis is to provide a reliable and convenient methods for obtaining useful solutions to mathematical problems and for extracting useful information from available solutions which are not expressed in proper form. It is a common norm that analytic solutions, when available may be very precise in themselves but may be, of course, of unacceptable form because of the fact that they are not amenable to direct interpretation in numerical terms. In which case numerical analyst may attempt to devise a method of effecting that interpretation in a satisfactory way, or he may prefer to base his analysis instead upon the original formulation.
A Comparison of Open Source Native XML Database Products
(University of Fort Hare, 2005-12) Mabanza, Ntima
This introductory chapter discusses the motivation for studying XML databases, including some questions that provide direction for the work. It also briefly introduces previous research, the scope of the thesis and also the research methodology. Chapter one concludes by giving the organization of the thesis.
A Spatio-Temporal Study of Land Degradation and Land Use/Land Cover Trends in the Upper Tyume Catchment Using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
(University of Fort Hare, 2004) Mapukati, Guilty
The study traced land degradation trends and land use changes and their relationships over time in the Upper Tyume Catchment of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. An integrated approach was used to investigate the reasons behind the occurrence of physical land degradation and how land use changes could have influenced degradation. A GIS-based soil erosion potential model and interpretation of aerial photographs (1: 10 000) spanning 47 years (1949-1996) were used to identify areas of differing soil erosion susceptibility. The erosion model used soils, slope, hydrology and land use as variables. Predicting slope areas susceptible to gully initiation was based on a 20m resolution DEM from which slope classes were computed. The modelling results were compared with aerial photo interpretation results and fieldwork.
Adaptive responses to heat stress, quality of hide and meat from indigenous Nguni and non-descript crossbred cattle
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Chikwanda, Denice
The main objective of this study was to determine the adaptive responses of Nguni and non-descript crossbred cattle (NDCC) to heat stress, nutritionally-related blood metabolite profiles, fatty acid profiles, carcass and meat characteristics, physico-mechanical properties of automotive upholstery crust leather and the associated collagen fibre architecture of hides and crust leather. Forty steers (20 Nguni and 20 NDCC) which were approximately 14 months of age with live weights ranging between 153 kg and 203 kg at the beginning of the study were used. Environmental variables (ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind parameters, solar radiation) were collected from a weather station at the research farm. Temperature-humidity index (THI) values were computed. Rectal and skin temperature, skin traits and blood metabolites were determined at two-week intervals over 16 weeks. Hair coat scores ranged from extremely short (score 1) to very woolly (score 7). At slaughter, blood samples were collected after exsanguination. Meat samples were collected from the right muscularis longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and Triceps brachii (TB) muscles after 24 hours of chilling of carcasses for physico-chemical quality tests. Fatty acid profiles and physico-chemical quality of meat were determined on the LTL and TB. An additional fifty-four hides (27 Nguni and 27 NDCC) were obtained from a commercial abattoir at slaughter. The hides were tanned into automotive crust leather and tested for physico-mechanical quality. Results showed that week and environmental variables affected skin temperature; also, the rectal and skin temperatures were negatively correlated to body condition, skin pigment, coat score and skin thickness. Non-descript crossbred cattle had higher coat scores (2.1 ± 0.36 to 4.1 ± 4.20) than Nguni cattle (1.6 ± 0.36 to 4.1 ± 0.36). Body condition scores, blood creatinine, urea, total protein, albumin and globulin were affected by genotype and week of sampling. At the end of the trial, NDCC had higher slaughter and hide weights (285.9 ± 6.52 kg and 18.4 ± 0.54 kg, respectively) than Nguni cattle (232.6 ± 6.5 kg and 14.7 ± 0.54 kg, respectively). The majority of NDCC carcasses (73.7 percent) had a fatness level of 1 compared to Nguni carcasses (50 percent). Intramuscular fat was higher in Nguni (1.8 ± 0.09 percent) compared to NDCC (1.5 ± 0.09 percent) steers. Nguni steers had darker muscle colour (L*=33.6 ± 0.01) than NDCC (L*= 35.7 ± 0.54). Nguni and NDCC had similar thawing loss, cooking loss, WBSF tenderness, fat-free dry matter, moisture content, fatty acid profiles and health-related lipid indices. Ultimate muscle pH, meat colour and chroma were similar in the LTL and TB. Concerning the skin, Nguni and NDCC had similar physico-mechanical properties. However, breaking load and tensile strength were higher (1257.1 ± 70.72 N and 28.3 ± 1.23 MPa) in samples taken parallel to the backbone compared to that taken perpendicular to the backbone (979.5 ±70.72 N and 23.6 ±1.23MPa) across the two genotypes. Non-descript crossbred crust leather varied in physico-mechanical tests by direction of sampling. Collagen fibre orientation in hides and crust samples also varied between longitudinal and cross-sections. Collagen fibre diameters in the Nguni were similar in longitudinal and cross-sections (3.4 ± 0.12 μm and 3.2 ± 0.11 μm, respectively). From this study, it is concluded that THI, hair coat, skin traits and body condition affect skin temperature, but not rectal temperature, cortisol and CK activity in Nguni and NDCC reared extensively. The two genotypes differ in nutritionally-related blood metabolites, growth performance, hide weights and carcass traits. Beef from Nguni and NDCC differs in the IMF and meat lightness but is similar in the meat fatty acid composition and some physico-chemical quality parameters. Automotive crust leathers from the two genotypes were similar in some physico-mechanical properties. Collagen architecture varied among different regions of hides and crust leathers.
Alternative methods used by small-holder farmers to control ticks and bovine dermatophilosis and the impact of a changing interface of Amblyomma ticks on dermatophilosis in Zimbabwe.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Ndhlovu, Daud Nyosi
This study was carried out to document the ethno-veterinary plants and non-plant remedies that farmers used to control dermatophilosis and ticks, and validate these in vitro and in vivo, as well as determine how the interface of Amblyomma variegatum and A. hebraeum affected the epidemiology of bovine dermatophilosis at selected small-holder areas in North-West Zimbabwe. A structured questionnaire survey was used to collect information on the control methods used by farmers for the control of bovine dermatophilosis and ticks. A total of 39 plants were used by farmers for various diseases, eleven of these plants were used for the control of dermatophilosis while three were for tick control. Across the study sites, dermatophilosis was controlled using eleven plants. Among these plants; six plants; Cissus quadrangularis, Catunaregan spinosa, Pterocarpus angolensis Carica papaya, Manihot esculenta and Blumea decurrens which were frequently used were selected for further studies. In vitro and in vivo studies were conducted to validate the efficacy of these plants. The minimum inhibitory concentration and bactericidal concentration assays were used for the in vitro validation of C. quadrangularis, C. spinosa and P. angolensis. Dermatophilus congolensis was more sensitive to P. angolensis average MIC = 0.63 mg/ml than to C. quadrangularis average MIC = 1.25 mg/ml and C. spinosa average MIC = 2.08 mg/ml. Cissus quadrangularis was selected for in vivo studies as this plant was the one most frequently used by farmers. Its therapeutic efficacy was compared to conventional antibiotics that farmers used to treat dermatophilosis infection. In the in vivo trials C. quadrangularis did not lead to appreciable reduction in clinical disease compared to the conventional drugs. The larval packet assay was the in vitro assay used to validate the efficacy of Carica papaya, Manihot esculenta and Blumea decurrens against larvae of A. hebraeum and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Manihot esculenta at 20 % w/v exhibited the highest larvicidal activity against R. appendiculatus. In the in vivo study, efficacy of the plants were investigated on naturally tick-infested cattle. Mannihot esculenta exhibited the largest tick load reduction compared to the other two plants but its performance was lower than that of conventional acaricides. The effect of A. variegatum and A. hebraeum on bovine dermatophilosis was investigated by evaluating how the presence or absence of these ticks and other herd level risk factors predicted clinical dermatophilosis and its prevalence at herd level. A structured questionnaire survey was carried out to collect data on potential risk factors. At the same time, cattle were physically examined for the presence of bovine dermatophilosis, according to a pre-defined case definition, and presence or absence of Amblyomma ticks was also recorded. The multivariable binary logistic model was developed with disease status as outcome, tick presence and infestion and herd level risk factors as predictors. Of the herds examined clinical bovine dermatophilosis was detected in 45% (84/185; 95% CI: 38.2, 52.6%) of them. Herds infested with Amblyomma variegatum were associated with higher odds (OR= 6.8; 95% CI: 1.71, 27.10) of clinical dermatophilosis while the association was not significant (P > 0.05) in A. hebraeum infested herds. It was concluded that management practices aimed at movement and tick control would help reduce the prevalence of clinical dermatophilosis in herds.
Alternative remedies used by resource-limited farmers in the treatment and manipulation of the reproductive system of non-descript goats in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Rwodzi, Maxwell
This study was carried out to determine alternative approaches used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and in the treatment of reproduction ailments of goats in Mount Frere area, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Furthermore, information on farmer perceptions pertaining to these practices was also gathered. A questionnaire survey was conducted to determine materials used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and treat reproductive ailments. The survey revealed 10 plant species that were commonly used for reproductive health in goats. Elephantorrhizza elephantina (37.1%) and Rhoicissus tomentosa (25.7%) were the most frequently cited plant species. Elephantorrhiza elephantina and R. tomentosa recorded the highest Fidelity Level (FL) values of 92.86% and 75% respectively, for their use in the treatment of reproductive ailments and these were the plants on which further studies were conducted. The study also revealed that farmers had different perceptions on the effectiveness of the traditional medicines. An in-vivo assessment was done to determine efficacy of E. elephantina and R.tomentosa using serum estradiol and progesterone profiles. The highest (P<0.05) serum estradiol and progesterone concentration was observed in animals administered with aqueous extracts of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa mixture while the least (P<0.05) concentrations were observed in the negative control group. Does administered with a mixture of aqueous E. elephantina and R. tomentosa extract had the highest (P<0.05) body weight (65 kg) as well as body condition scores, while the negative control which were administered with distilled water had the least body weights (54 kg) and body condition scores. Does that were administered with a mixture of E.elephantina and R. tomentosa were all pregnant with twins (100%), confirmed by a doppler ultrasound scan.
Alternative remedies used by resource-limited farmers in the treatment and manipulation of the reproductive system of non-descript goats in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Rwodzi, Maxwell
This study was carried out to determine alternative approaches used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and in the treatment of reproduction ailments of goats in Mount Frere area, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Furthermore, information on farmer perceptions pertaining to these practices was also gathered. A questionnaire survey was conducted to determine materials used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and treat reproductive ailments. The survey revealed 10 plant species that were commonly used for reproductive health in goats. Elephantorrhizza elephantina (37.1%) and Rhoicissus tomentosa (25.7%) were the most frequently cited plant species. Elephantorrhiza elephantina and R. tomentosa recorded the highest Fidelity Level (FL) values of 92.86% and 75% respectively, for their use in the treatment of reproductive ailments and these were the plants on which further studies were conducted. The study also revealed that farmers had different perceptions on the effectiveness of the traditional medicines. An in-vivo assessment was done to determine efficacy of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa using serum estradiol and progesterone profiles. The highest (P<0.05) serum estradiol and progesterone concentration was observed in animals administered with aqueous extracts of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa mixture while the least (P<0.05) concentrations were observed in the negative control group. Does administered with a mixture of aqueous E. elephantina and R. tomentosa extract had the highest (P<0.05) body weight (65 kg) as well as body condition scores, while the negative control which were administered with distilled water had the least body weights (54 kg) and body condition scores. Does that were administered with a mixture of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa were all pregnant with twins (100%), confirmed by a doppler ultrasound scan.
An Analysis of the Characteristics and Constraints of Small Holder Commercial Farmers in the Transkei Region, The Eastern Cape , South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-01) Nompozolo, Sivelile
The majority of the poor in South Africa are involved in subsistence Agriculture. An increase in productivity of the production of staple crops would be one direct way of increasing income of those households as well as increasing the per capita availability of staples. The increased availability of staples could also release resources that could be used· to purchase foodstuffs for a better balanced diet and therefore contribute to the improvement of the nutritional status of the household. The general problem of agricultural development may well be the most critical development issue in Transkei (Transkei Land Reform Research Group; 1995).
An Evaluation of the Oesophageal Fistula Valve Technique
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-05) Lebopa, Cornelia Kedidimetse
The oesophageal fistula valve technique (Raats & Clarke‚ 1992) was evaluated in terms of its ability to reflect the daily forage selection pattern of free ranging goats over a period ot four seasons and two Stocking rates. During the. evaluation, the oesophageal fistula valve technique was compared to the standard oesophageal fistula bag technique and observed feeding behaviour. Comparisons were in terms of: (i) proportion of grass or bush.(% DM) in both the fistula bag and valve samples compared against the time spent grazing or browsing i (% of active feeding period); (ii) the changes in chemical composition (CP, NDF, ADF and ADL) of the bag samples versus that of valve samples and; (iii) diurnal changes in feeding behaviour and plant species selection pattern of free-ranging goats based on observations.
Analysis of decision making in smallholder irrigation practice: a case study of Shiloh and Zanyokwe irrigation schemes in central Eastern Cape, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Agholor, Azikiwe Isaac
The study was conducted in Zanyokwe and Shiloh smallholder irrigation schemes located in Eastern Cape Province at Amathole and Chris Hani districts respectively. The choice of Zanyokwe and Shiloh smallholder irrigation scheme for this study is mainly supported by the fact that it had a substantial level of crop farming activity taking place especially at Zanyokwe while the Shiloh smallholder irrigation specialises dairy farming. The study examined decision making in smallholder irrigation practice with particular reference to Shiloh and Zanyokwe irrigation schemes. The general objective of the thesis was to analyse and model the determinants of SIS farmer’s decision making. The specific objectives of the study are as follows: to investigate the determinants of decision making among smallholder irrigation farmers; to examine the relationship between household and farm characteristics and institutional factors that explain decision making in smallholder irrigation scheme; assess the contribution of smallholder irrigation farming to household food security; and determine the production and marketing constraints of smallholder farmers‟ in both schemes. The theoretical and conceptual framework of the study gave a detailed discussion on the determinants of decision making of households. The theories used to understand household behaviour under different assumptions were variously discussed. Comprehensive illustrations of analytical framework of the study were also conceptualised. This study used a survey design, quantitative and qualitative research methodologies involving the use of questionnaires and focus group discussions. The data was coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). However, frequencies, percentages, bar and pie chart was also computed to describe the data. In consideration of the conceptual framework of the study, the agricultural household model was adopted to analyse smallholder farmer’s household decision making Twenty one explanatory variables identified in the conceptual framework of the study were discussed and some of these identified variables were incorporated into the model. The logistic regression model was used as a method of analysis because it can estimate the probability of a certain event occurring and it accommodates a lot of variables which can be ranked in order to illustrate which variables are significant. In the binary logistic model used, seven variables (farm experience, size of farmland, land rights/PTO, water sufficiency, farm asset, market information and production variation) out of the twelve predictor variables were found to have significant effect on influencing household decision making in Shiloh smallholder irrigation scheme, while five variables (gender, age, education, road distance and extension access) were not significant. Of the seven significant variables, four had positive signs (land rights/PTO, water sufficiency and market information); which means that an increase in either of these variables may be associated with an increase in household decision making in Shiloh. The other three predictor variables (farm experience, farm asset and product variation) had negative signs; this means an increase in either of these variables may be associated with a decrease in decision making. In Zanyokwe, six variables (farm experience, land rights/PTO, water sufficiency, farm asset, market information and production variation) out of the twelve predictor variables were found to have significant impact on influencing household decision making, while six variables (gender, age, education, size of farm land, road distance and extension access) were not significant. Of the six significant variables, two had positive signs (water sufficiency and farm asset); which means that an increase in either of these variables may be associated with an increase in household decision making in Zanyokwe. The other four predictor variables (farm experience, land rights/PTO, market information and product variation) had negative signs; this means an increase in either of these variables may be associated with a decrease in decision making. The study concludes that smallholder agriculture is essential for employment generation and food security of households. It is apparent that household food security will not be achieved without giving attention to the role played by smallholders‟ farmers in South Africa. It is pertinent to promulgate an efficient policy programme to address the diversity of smallholders‟ situations and identify the main constraints on investment. Therefore, all spheres of government, the private sector and NGOs should consider investment in smallholder agriculture through coordinated strategies and political support. This study also recommends that government should develop a strategic Smallholder Investment Plan which would improve investments in smallholder agriculture.
Analysis of entrepreneurial behaviour of smallholder irrigation farmers: empirical evidence from Qamata irrigation scheme
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Chitsa, Gilbert
Albeit much effort having been put to review the performance trend of smallholder irrigation farmers in South Africa. However, there seems to be a paucity of information regarding the level of entrepreneurship on these farmers. Most research works on smallholder irrigation farmers have mainly focused on livelihoods trajectory providing a review on how the welfare of the rural poor has been transformed after the introduction of irrigation schemes. With most research evidence indicating a high degree of underperformance on most smallholder irrigation schemes, this research attempted to investigate the level of entrepreneurship among the small holder irrigation farmers. In order to achieve the main research objective, a sample of 110 farmers drawn from Qamata irrigation scheme was interviewed and each farmer’s performance on the nine components of entrepreneurship was assessed. The aspects assessed to determine the farmer’s entrepreneurial behaviour were: planning ability, risk taking, achievement motivation, leadership ability, Cosmo politeness, decision making, and innovativeness and farming knowledge. Basing on previous studies which indicated entrepreneurial behaviour to be influenced by several factors the study also analysed the determinants of entrepreneurship among the irrigation farmers and a binary logistic regression model was used to establish the connection between various independent variables and the farmers’ entrepreneurial performance given as a total score of the nine components. Though the findings of the study revealed a prevalently low level of entrepreneurship among the smallholder irrigation farmers on Qamata irrigation scheme, a high proportion of the respondent farmers (65.5% and 60.5%) showed to have a high degree of achievement motivation and decision making ability, respectively. The observed trend thus reflected that smallholder farmers have a potential to become entrepreneurs and are willing to succeed. The binary model results revealed that the prevailing land tenure system will be a strong determinant of the farmer’s level of entrepreneurship. Equally, levels of training in farming, motive for farming and information seeking tendency also proved to have a significant influence on the degree of farmer entrepreneurship. Based on the results of this study recommendations have thus been drawn on the need for policies and practices aimed at promoting entrepreneurship and not dependency among farmers. Key focus areas identified include: the need to revise the current land tenure system on irrigation schemes, intensify on entrepreneurship training for both farmers and extension officers and regular on-farm training on new technologies.
An analysis of groundwater in Mjinchi District of Central Malawi
(University of Fort Hare, 2010) Mleta, Prince W.C
Groundwater resources is the major source of potable water in Mchinji District of Central Malawi and globally. Although the total amount of water on and under the earth‟s surface is generally assumed to have remained constant, the rapid population boom coupled with extension of agricultural farmland and industrial development are putting pressure and stress on the quality and quantity of water resources. In principal therefore, „use and discard‟ philosophy in water resources cannot be subscribed (Lloyd, 1999). The situation ultimately calls for rational management of water resources to ensure its sustainability. Water intended for human consumption must be free from organisms that are the causative agents of diseases and must not contain chemical substances at concentrations that may be hazardous to human health. In addition drinking water should be aesthetically acceptable, free from unpleasant taste, color, odor and turbidity. Drinking water should also be free from bacteria and viruses whose presence would indicate fecal contamination. Some are known to be toxic and their concentrations must be below acceptable value, taking into account that drinking water is but one of the several pathways by which substances enters the body. Due to perceived concerns of over extraction and rapid water resources depletion, optimal management of groundwater resources are now receiving much attention. Their associated literatures have taken quite different approaches both philosophically and operationally to the analysis of how groundwater should be managed, allocated and cared for spatially and temporally. This study investigated the spatial and temporal fluctuations of concentrations of chemical and biological substances in groundwater such as pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, iron, fluoride, manganese, chloride, sulfates, sodium and fecal coliform in Mchinji District of Central Malawi. Through examination and analysis of static water levels as an indicator of water table fluctuations, groundwater availability was also measured. It was found that anthropogenic activities on the landscape can impact the quality and quantity of the water resources in this area and this impact on the various sectors of the inhabitant‟s livelihoods. Groundwater in Mchinji is composed of a number of chemical and biological elements whose origin is either from the material in which it percolates through, or stored before exploitation. Anthropogenic activities in this area plays a role in the quality and quantity of groundwater through land use and land cover change as evidenced by comparisons of Landsat Thematic Mapper™ satellite images over different time scales. In Mchinji no regular groundwater monitoring is being done indicating a deficiency in sustainability interventions of the resource. This study calls for integrated and sustainable water resources management and coordinated efforts amongst water users, local councils, regulatory authorities and environmental policy makers. Of far greater importance in groundwater sustainability analysis is the issue of groundwater monitoring. It is imperative therefore to preserve the resource while preservation is still possible. Groundwater is now turning into „blue gold‟ and becoming a highly sought-after commodity. It should, however, be utilized sustainably to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Analysis of marketing channels used by smallholder crop farmers in Vryheid (Abaqulusi) Municipality, Kwazulu-Natal
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Ntshangase, Muziwandile Gift
A total of 120 structured questionnaires were administered to analyse marketing channels used by smallholder crop farmers, at Abaqulusi Municipality, Vryheid and KwaZulu Natal Province, South Africa. Research methodology consisted of research design, sample frame, sampling procedure, data collection and data analysis which were used in the study. Descriptive statistics analysis was used, where frequencies and percentages of the variables were indicated. Variables which were measured included demographic socio-economic profile of survey household heads where age, marital status, educational level, occupation other than farming, land ownership, household size and gender of the household heads.The results show that the statistically significant variables (gender, household size) at 5% level positively affect smallholder crop farmers’ access to market information, expertise on grades and standards, availability of contractual agreements, existence of extensive social capital, availability of good market infrastructure, group participation and reliance on tradition. These findings suggest that an adjustment in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of participation in either formal or informal marketing, and hence their marketing channels. In the light of the foregoing research findings, several policy options were suggested. These include encouraging collective action, promotion of contract farming, ensuring the availability of market information to all farmers, encouraging value addition and investment in rural infrastructure.
The analysis of the economic impact of climate change on maize production under different farming systems : the case of smallholder farmers in Jozini Municipality, KwaZulu Natal Province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Nxumalo, Bongiwe G.
Maize is the most grown crop by the farmers in Jozini. Therefore, the main objective of the study was to assess the economic impact of climate change on maize production under different farming systems in Jozini Municipality in KwaZulu Natal (KZN). The study was looking at the smallholder farmers producing maize under dryland and irrigation system. A total of 100 farmers were selected for the study (40 from dry-land and 60 from irrigating farmers). Cluster and random sampling procedures were used to select the sample. Questionnaires were used for the collection of primary data, from the respondents (maize farmers). Data was analysed using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentages), gross margin, regression analysis and the Ricardian model. Data for computing gross margins and net revenue was taken from the on-farm trials. Gross margin was used on regression analysis and the net revenue was used on the Ricardian model. The results of the regression analysis indicated that land size, farmer’s experience to farming, level of education, use of fertiliser, use of irrigation and the yield obtained were significant and have a positive relationship with farmers gross margin. The results of the Ricardian model indicated that climate change affects both farming systems, but farmers that are producing under dryland are the most affected farmers because they rely more on climate variables especially rainfall for their production. So a change in climate variables affects maize farmers’ productivity and thus affecting farmers’ gross margin and net revenue. The study recommends that the farmers must use irrigation in order to support maize production even in the absence of rainfall. Farmers must also adapt to the short growing season so that they will be able to produce even in the presence of climate change.
Anatomy and Morphology of Glandular and Non-glandular trichomes of Pteronia incana in relation to their essential oil production
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-01) Mayekiso, Buyisile
The morphology and anatomy of the non-glandular. and glandular trichomes present on both abaxial and adaxial surfacea as well as on the stem surface of Pteronia incana were examined using light, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The non-glandular trichomes were thread-like structures with elongated fibrous ends having a tubular basal cells. They occurred in greater abundance in both young and mature leaves and in stems. The fibrous ends of non-glandular trichomes seemed to be shielding the epidermal layer, the glandular trichome and the stoma. The electron micrograph of non-glandular trichomes showed that both trichomes originated from a single epidermal cell by anticlinal division. As the trichome matured, the cells at the end of the trichome became dehydrated and formed a thread-like fibre. Structurally, these fibrous ends were similar in composition to the components of the suberized cell walls
Antibiogram profiling of Escherichia Coli pathotypes isolated from Kat River and Fort Beaufort abstraction water.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Nontongana, Nolonwabo
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a widespread species that includes a broad variety of strains, ranging from highly pathogenic strains causing worldwide outbreaks of severe disease to virulent isolates which are part of the normal intestinal flora or which are well characterized and safe laboratory strains. The pathogenicity of a given E. coli strain is mainly determined by specific virulence factors which include adhesins, invasins, toxins and capsule. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and antibiogram profiles of E. coli pathotypes previously isolated from Kat River and Fort Beaufort abstraction water. A total of 171 E. coli isolates showed at least one pathogenic determinant among the isolated 278 E. coli. The other 107 isolates were negative for the tested virulence genes. All 278 presumptive isolates tested positive for the UidA gene, and were therefore classified as non-categorized pathogenic E. coli. The 171 pathogenic isolates had at least one characteristic gene of pathogenic E. coli and were identified and classified as enteropathogenic E. coli (6%), enterotoxigenicE. coli (131), uropathogenic E. coli (6), neonatal meningitis E. coli (14), diffusely adherent E. coli (1) and enterohaemrrhagic E. coli (1). Interestingly, no virulence genes were detected for the enteroinvasive E. coli and the enteroaggregative E. coli .The antibiotic resistance profiles for all isolates that were identified as E. coli showed 100% resistance to penicillin G, 98% resistance to ampicillin, 38% resistance to trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole and 8% resistance to streptomycin. Multiple antibacterial resistance (MAR) was also observed, where 44% of the isolates were resistant to three antibiotics and 8% resistant to four antibiotics. The results of this study showed the Kat River and Fort Beaufort abstraction water are reservoirs of pathogenic strains of E. coli which harbour antibiotic resistance determinants that can cause serious health risks to the people in the surrounding communities.
Assessing the impact of primary agricultural co-operative membership on smallholder farm performance (crops) in Mnquma Local Municipality of the Eastern Cape Province
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Mzuyanda, Christian
When the issue of economic growth and development of a developing country is raised, one has to take into account the performance of the smallholder farmers, especially where the agricultural sector is an important employer of labour and source of livelihoods. Reducing the challenges they are facing and utilizing their potentials can help to accelerate the transformation of the agricultural sector and economic development of the country as a whole. Agricultural cooperatives are ideal means for self-reliance, higher productivity and promotion of agricultural development. Therefore, the major concern of this study is assessing the impact of cooperative membership on farm performance in Mnquma Local Municipality. In order to address these issues a structured questionnaire was used to interview 100 farmers. Farmers were divided into two groups, one group consisting of fifty members of agricultural cooperatives and the other fifty non-members of cooperatives; all these farmers were randomly selected from Ngqamakhwe, Butterworth and Centane in Mnquma. The study investigated and profiled the socio-economic situation of the farmers. It also undertook a comparison of the members and non-members of the co-operatives in terms of their production and marketing activities. To analyze the data, descriptive and inferential statistics were used to explain some measures of central tendency and dispersion as well as test the hypothesis that there is a difference in performance between members and non-members of cooperatives. In addition, a simple linear regression model was used to assess the impact of cooperative membership on farm performance. To avoid selection bias that arises from the use of the simple linear regression model, the propensity score matching was also used to test the effect of different treatments on the sample. The expected results were that members of cooperatives perform better in terms of farm revenues, incomes and value of inputs used than non-members. In addition, the expectation was that members of cooperatives have larger plots of land, high crop yields hence generating high revenues per unit sold. The results from the field survey indicated that cooperative membership is positively related to performance (including revenue, farm income and value of inputs used), although some development programmes are needed to enhance performance of these farmers. Members of cooperatives produce and sell large quantities of output compared to non-members. This could be attributed to the fact that cooperative members receive farm inputs and extension support. Because of the frequent visits by extension officers, members of cooperatives have high access to market information. The results further confirm the hypothesis that membership in a cooperative has a positive impact on farm performance. The results from the first regression model indicated that membership in a cooperative has a positive and significant influence (p=0.004) on farm income, and (p=0.124) on revenue. The second regression model indicated that membership of cooperatives has a positive and significant influence of (p=0.007) on farm income, (p=0.138) on revenue. With regards to value of inputs, membership was found not significant at 1%, 5% and 10% levels. The age of household head, number of years spent in school, land size, access to information, type of market and ward in which these farmers are situated significantly influence farm performance at 1%, 5%, and 10% levels. Propensity score matching also confirms this hypothesis that membership was significant in respect to farm income (p=0.006) although not necessarily so in respect to revenue (p=0.088). While the study confirms the positive contribution of cooperatives, it is clear that more needs to be done to achieve greater inclusivity and make livelihoods improvements more sustainable. This calls for interventions from government and NGOs to motivate individual farmers to join cooperatives and operate within the framework of organized groups. The support could be provided in terms of credit to farmers, extension services and infrastructure development to serve smallholder farmers. In terms of further research, the study suggests that research on cooperative membership impact on farm performance in all forms of cooperative would yield immense insights for policy. Also, the present study was limited to only one municipality and it is necessary to conduct similar studies in other parts of
Assessing the vulnerability of resource-poor households to disasters associated with climate variability using remote sensing and GIS techniques in the Nkonkobe Local Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2016) Chari, Martin M; Hamandawana, H.
The main objective of the study was to assess the extent to which resource-poor households in selected villages of Nkonkobe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa are vulnerable to drought by using an improvised remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS)-based mapping approach. The research methodology was comprised of 1) assessment of vulnerability levels and 2) the calculation of established drought assessment indices comprising the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) from wet-season Landsat images covering a period of 29 years from 1985 to 2014 in order to objectively determine the temporal recurrence of drought in Nkonkobe Local Municipality. Vulnerability of households to drought was determined by using a multi-step GIS-based mapping approach in which 3 components comprising exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity were simultaneously analysed and averaged to determine the magnitude of vulnerability. Thereafter, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used to establish weighted contributions of these components to vulnerability. The weights applied to the AHP were obtained from the 2012 - 2017 Nkonkobe Integrated Development Plan (IDP) and perceptions that were solicited from key informants who were judged to be knowledgeable about the subject. A Kruskal-Wallis H test on demographic data for water access revealed that the demographic results are independent of choice of data acquired from different data providers (χ2(2) = 1.26, p = 0.533, with a mean ranked population scores of 7.4 for ECSECC, 6.8 for Quantec and 9.8 for StatsSA). Simple linear regression analysis revealed strong positive correlations between NDWI and NDVI ((r = 0.99609375, R2 = 1, for 1985), 1995 (r = 0.99609375, R2 = 1 for 1995), (r = 0.99609375, R2 = 1 for 2005) and (r = 0.99609375, R2 = 1 for 2014). The regression analysis proved that vegetation condition depends on surface water arising from rainfall. The results indicate that the whole of Nkonkobe Local Municipality is susceptible to drought with villages in south eastern part being most vulnerable to droughts due to high sensitivity and low adaptive capacity.
Assessment of antibiotic production by some marine Streptomyces isolated from the Nahoon Beach
(University of Fort Hare, 2010) Ogunmwonyi, Isoken Nekpen Henrietta
Rapidly emerging strains of bacteria resistant to most advanced antibiotics have become issues of very important public health concern. Research currently directed towards marine actinomycetes presents a vast potential for new compounds that could be able to safely and effectively target resistant species. In this regard, ten putative Streptomyces strains isolated from the Nahoon beach were selected and assessed for antibiotic production and activity against a wide range of bacteria including reference strains, environmental strain and clinical isolates. The ethyl acetate extracts of the putative Streptomyces isolates showed activities against at least 6 and up to 26 of the 32 test bacteria. Inhibition zones were found to range between 9-32 mm diameters at a concentration of 10 mg/ml. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of the crude extracts ranged from 0.039 - 10 mg/ml and the least minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) demonstrated was 0.625 mg/ml against a reference strain Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538. Time kill kinetics of all extracts revealed bacteristatic and bactericidal activities. Average Log reductions in viable cell counts for all the extracts ranged from 0.86 Log10 and 3.99 Log10 cfu/ml after 3 h interaction and 0.01 Log10 and 4.86 Log10 after 6 h interaction at MIC, 2 × MIC, 3 × MIC and 4 × MIC concentrations. Most of the extracts were speedily bactericidal at 3 × MIC and 4 × MIC resulting in over 50 % elimination of most of the test bacteria within 3 h and 6 h interaction. The partial characterization of the crude extracts by IR spectral analysis revealed possibility of terpenoid, long chain fatty acids and secondary amine derivatives compounds in the extracts. It is therefore recommended that further investigation should address the relationship between the structure of the active component of the extracts and the broad spectrum activity, as well as a rapid method for large scale production and purification and whether this group of antibiotics has any application in managing human infectious disease..
Assessment of bioflocculant production by two marine bacteria isolated from the bottom sediment of marine Algoa Bay
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Ntozonke, Ncedo; Prof. Okoh, A I
Bioflocculants are polymers, mostly, of microbial origin which floc out suspended particles from liquid medium. The ability of these biopolymers to remove suspended particles from solutions is termed bioflocculation, and the efficiency of flocculation activities depends on the characteristics of the flocculants. In comparison with conventionally used flocculants, bioflocculants have the advantage of being safe (no toxic effects known), biodegradable and harmlessness to the environment. The study assessed production of bioflocculant by two marine bacteria from the bottom sediment of marine environment. The 16S rDNA was used for identification, and the two bacteria species were identified as Enterococcus hirae and Bacillus thuringiensis. Factors affecting the production and activity of the bioflocculants produced by these two organisms were studied. The bacteria optimally produced bioflocculant with fructose (91.7%) and urea (91%) as sole carbon and nitrogen sources respectively. Mg2+ (87%) and Ca2+ (86%), likewise, served as best cation sources on the production of the bioflocculant at pH 5(93%). Additionally, the flocculating activity of the bioflocculant increased with the addition of Mg2+ (81%) and Na+ (81%), and the highest flocculating activity was at pH 5 of the kaolin clay. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) shows that the bioflocculant is a glycoprotein. The second bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis) produced bioflocculant optimally when the media had mixed nitrogen sources (Urea, ammonium chloride and tryptone (67%)) and glucose (85.65%) as a sole carbon source, also Ca2+ (74.6%) was the best cation that induced the production of bioflocculant. After purification, the bioflocculant flocculated optimally in alkaline pH 12 (81%) in the presence of Mn2+ (73%) and Ca2+ (72.8%). Chemical analysis of the bioflocculant revealed it to be a polysaccharide. Both bioflocculants flocculate efficiently and can be used to replace synthetic flocculants in water treatment, wastewater, in downstream processing, and processing of food and chemicals and other industrial uses of flocculants. Challenges though (i) are to develop conditions for large scale production of the bioflocculant, (ii) to do further characterization of the both bioflocculants (iii) to assess the bioflocculants for treatments of water/wastewater, and to apply it in various industrial processes.

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