Department of Livestock and Pasture Science

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An Evaluation of the Oesophageal Fistula Valve Technique
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-05) Lebopa, Cornelia Kedidimetse
The oesophageal fistula valve technique (Raats & Clarke‚ 1992) was evaluated in terms of its ability to reflect the daily forage selection pattern of free ranging goats over a period ot four seasons and two Stocking rates. During the. evaluation, the oesophageal fistula valve technique was compared to the standard oesophageal fistula bag technique and observed feeding behaviour. Comparisons were in terms of: (i) proportion of grass or bush.(% DM) in both the fistula bag and valve samples compared against the time spent grazing or browsing i (% of active feeding period); (ii) the changes in chemical composition (CP, NDF, ADF and ADL) of the bag samples versus that of valve samples and; (iii) diurnal changes in feeding behaviour and plant species selection pattern of free-ranging goats based on observations.
Voedingstres Indikatore as Maastaf van Voedingspeil in Bokke (Capra hircus hircus)
(University of Fort Hare, 2000-12) Landman, Christiaan Mauritz Murray
An in-depth study was launched to evaluate the potential use of nutritional stress indicators in goats. Several blood metabolites, body characteristics and production functions were evaluated under different levels of nutrition (fasting, maintenance and ad lib), nutrient requirements (non-pregnant, pregnant and lactating) and environmental conditions (penned and free ranging). Generally the results were disappointing and with the exception of the fasting experiment the reaction time [(P < 0.05) differences between groups] for all 13 indicators was never shorter than seven weeks. Very few cases were observed where all the individuals within a group responded uniformly to the treatments. It was also not possible to confirm a clear linear relationship between the measured indicators and the level of feeding. This study shows that none of the measured indicators satisfied the predetermined levels of sensitivity or repeatability and can therefore not be recommended for use under free ranging conditions.
Prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases in cattle on communal Rangelands in the highland areas of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2008) Marufu, Munyaradzi Christopher
Surveys were conducted to compare the seasonal tick prevalence and loads, and sero-prevalence of tick-borne diseases (TBD) in Nguni and non-descript cattle on the sweet and sour communal rangelands of the Eastern Cape Province. The tick species observed on both rangeland types were Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (71.0 %), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) species (29.2 %) and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (40.2 %). Hyalomma species (19.0 %) occurred only on the sour rangeland. Tick loads were higher (P < 0.05) in the hot-wet season than in the cool-dry season. Cattle in the sweet rangeland had significantly lower (P < 0.05) tick loads than those in the sour rangeland. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus loads were lower (P < 0.05) in the indigenous Nguni than non-descript cattle in the hot-wet and post-rainy season. Hyalomma species were also significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the Nguni than non-descript cattle in all the seasons. Three TBDs were observed, namely Babesia bovis (44.6 %), Babesia bigemina (45.9 %) and Anaplasma marginale (25.6 %). All the animals were sero-negative for Ehrlichia ruminantium. Nguni cattle had lower (P < 0.05) sero-prevalence for A. marginale in the cool-dry season and B. bigemina in the cool-dry and hot-wet seasons. Cattle in the sweet rangeland had significantly lower sero-prevalence of B. bovis and B. bigemina. Infection with B. bovis and A. marginale decreased (P < 0.05) the packed cell volume. Nguni cattle were recommended for use in the integrated control of ticks and TBD in the communal areas of South Africa as they were better able to cope with tick and TBD infestations than non-descript breeds.
Reproductive performance of cows in sweet and sour veld types under communal production systems in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2008) Nqeno, Noluvuyo
The objective of the study was to evaluate cow reproductive performance in the sweetveld and sourveld communal grazing areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. In the first experiment, farmer perceptions were obtained using participatory rural appraisals. Farmers ranked lack of fences, tick-borne diseases, poor animal condition during winter and poor breeding practices, respectively as major constraints limiting cattle production in the Eastern Cape. Cattle, sheep and goats, in that order, were ranked as the most important livestock species and were mainly kept for meat, cash and ceremonies, respectively. The non-descript cattle breed was the most common breed found in the smallholder areas. Most farmers preferred Nguni breed because of its adaptive attributes. In the second experiment, structured questionnaires were administered, between June and August 2006, to a total of 551 farmers from 10 communities of the Eastern Cape. There was a significant association (P<0.05) between the use of pregnancy diagnoses and community. About 87 and 77 % of the interviewed farmers did not respond on the extent of pregnancy and calving rates in their herds. A higher proportion of farmers from Hekele (51%) and from Upper Mnxe (45.3%) communities reported low number of bulls as a major constraint to cow reproductive performance. Body condition and ovarian activity were measured in the sweet and sour veld types. Body condition score of animals was measured from March 2007 until January 2008 and ovarian activity of cows was performed by a veterinarian through rectal palpation in June, August and October 2007 and January 2008. From March to July, there was a marked decline in body condition on both veld types. In the sweetveld, body condition improved from September until January, whereas in the sourveld the improvement in body condition started in October. The cows in both veld types conceived throughout the year. Most cows in the sweetveld were cycling in January and August (P<0.05) whereas in the sourveld there was no distinct period when the animals were cycling. Overall, there were no differences in the proportion of cows that were cycling between the sour and sweet veldts (P>0.05). There were more cows cycling in sourveld in October than in the sweetveld. Reproductive performance of cows in communal areas could, therefore, be determined by levels and quality of nutrition.
Species and spatio-temporal variation in the yield, nutritive value and in vitro ruminal fermentation characteristics of selected grass species from two communal grazing lands of the Eastern Cape.
(University of Fort Hare, 2013) Kwaza, Ayanda; Beyene, S.
Communal rangelands sustain a large proportion of the livestock in South Africa. A few dominant grass species contribute to the bulk of the livestock forage in these rangelands. Little is known on the chemical composition and in vitro ruminal fermentation characteristics of grass species grazed by ruminants in the communal grazing lands of Eastern Cape Province in South Africa. The objectives of this study were therefore to investigate seasonal and altitudinal variations in biomass yield, chemical composition, and in vitro ruminal degradability and cumulative gas production of selected (dominant) grass species. The grass species were collected over four seasons (summer, autumn, winter and spring) from three altitudes/landscape gradients (upland, gentle sloppy and bottomlands) across two communal areas (Hala in highland (Highveld) and Gqumashe in lowland (Lowveld)) of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. In each altitude, three 50 m x 20 m plots, which served as replicates were marked to collect vegetation samples. A 5 x 4 x 3 factorial experiment in a randomised complete block design was used with season, altitude and grass species being the main factors, and with the plots within altitudes serving as blocks (replicates). Data analysis was done separately for the two communal study areas using the General Linear Models (GLM) procedure of SAS to test differences between species, seasons and altitudes. The common grass species in both grazing lands were Cynodon dactylon, Eragrostis chloromelus, Eragrostis plana, Sporobolus africanus and Themeda triandra. When the DM yield of all the grasses was combined, the results showed a generally low forage dry matter yield during the dry season. There was no significant (P>0.05) interaction between any of the main factors. Macro and micro mineral content of plant samples collected from the two communal grazing lands showed great variations (P<0.05) between species, seasons and altitude. In the Highveld, CP ranged from 3.9 to 6.5% DM being significantly highest (P<0.05) in Cynodon dactylon and lowest in E. plana. When all species were combined, higher CP was recorded for samples harvested in summer (5.5%) followed by spring and autumn, and lowest in winter (3.8%). In the Lowveld, Eragrostis chloromelus had higher (P<0.05) CP level followed by C. dactylon and T. Triandra. When all species were pooled, forage samples harvested in summer had a significantly higher (P<0.05) CP followed by spring, autumn and winter. In summary, CP content of all grasses was below the critical maintenance level for livestock especially during late dry seasons. In both areas, the highest NDF level was measured for Eragrostis plana and lowest for Themeda triandra. As for altitudinal differences, samples collected from the upland areas had generally the lowest (P<0.05) CP and highest ADF contents. For grasses harvested from the Highveld, C. dactylon produced the most (P<0.05) gas after 48 h of fermentation (794.6 ml/g DM) and also had the highest 48h DMD (415.1 g kg-1). Themeda triandra produced least (P<0.05) gas (742 ml/g DM) 48h post-incubation. The least (P<0.05) degradable species after 48 h was E. chloromelus (372.9 g kg-1). For grasses harvested from Lowveld, the 48h cumulative gas production was highest (822.7 ml/g DM) in E. plana and lowest (742.8 ml/g DM) in E. chloromelus, while S. africanus had least 48h DMD (327.9 kg-1). In both the Highveld and Lowveld, gas production and DMD were highest in the autumn season. It was concluded most grasses were deficient in calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium. Therefore, it is recommended that mineral supplements should be offered to animals to improve animal productivity throughout the year. Findings of this study suggested that addition of protein and energy sources may be desirable in both grazing areas to meet the maintenance/production requirements of the grazing ruminants throughout the year.
Perceptions of rural consumers on behaviour and beef quality of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies in the Eastern Cape of South Africa.
(2014) Soga, Sizwe William
The objective of the study was to determine perceptions of the consumers on how they judged behaviour and beef quality of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. A survey was conducted where a sample of 200 consumers were randomly selected and interviewed. Fifty non-descript cattle were slaughtered during traditional ceremonies and two hundred and twenty four (224) cattle were slaughtered at 3 through-put abattoirs (high, medium and low). Meat quality attributes were determined from the cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies and from cattle slaughtered at the abattoirs. Data for questionnaires was summarized as frequencies for each ceremony and statistical differences were analysed using chi square test (X2). The effect of Age, breed and sex on beef pH, colour, meat tenderness, temperature and cooking loss of cattle slaughtered during traditional ceremonies, at low, medium and high throughput abattoirs were analyzed using General Linear Model (PROG GLM) of SAS (2003). There was a significant age effect (P < 0.05) on beef tenderness and cooking loss of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies. Age of cattle that have milk teeth to 1 year and age of 6 years to 8 years had an effect on the beef tenderness (25.55 ± 8.05) and cooking loss (48.00 ± 4.26) of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies in Table 4.1. There was no significant sex effect on beef tenderness and cooking loss of cattle slaughtered for traditional ceremonies. Non-descript and Angus cattle slaughtered at low throughput abattoir had an effect on the colour of the beef in Table 4.2. The lightness (27.49 ± 2.53) and yellowness (21.16 ± 0.79) of the beef shows that there was a significant breed effect on cattle that are slaughtered at Low throughput abattoir, however redness of the meat was not affected by breed after slaughter. Cattle that are slaughtered at high throughput abattoir between ages of 6 to 8 years and also cattle that are more than 8 years in Table 4.4 had an effect on cooking loss (p < 0.05). Age between 6 to 8 years had an effect on the beef tenderness from cattle that are slaughtered at medium throughput abattoir. It was concluded that the meat tenderness of the young cattle with milk teeth slaughtered for traditional ceremonies was affected. On the other hand the meat tenderness and cooking loss of beef from the cattle slaughtered from low, medium and high throughput abattoir were affected by sex and breed mostly.
Alternative remedies used by resource-limited farmers in the treatment and manipulation of the reproductive system of non-descript goats in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Rwodzi, Maxwell
This study was carried out to determine alternative approaches used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and in the treatment of reproduction ailments of goats in Mount Frere area, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Furthermore, information on farmer perceptions pertaining to these practices was also gathered. A questionnaire survey was conducted to determine materials used by resource-limited farmers to enhance fertility and treat reproductive ailments. The survey revealed 10 plant species that were commonly used for reproductive health in goats. Elephantorrhizza elephantina (37.1%) and Rhoicissus tomentosa (25.7%) were the most frequently cited plant species. Elephantorrhiza elephantina and R. tomentosa recorded the highest Fidelity Level (FL) values of 92.86% and 75% respectively, for their use in the treatment of reproductive ailments and these were the plants on which further studies were conducted. The study also revealed that farmers had different perceptions on the effectiveness of the traditional medicines. An in-vivo assessment was done to determine efficacy of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa using serum estradiol and progesterone profiles. The highest (P<0.05) serum estradiol and progesterone concentration was observed in animals administered with aqueous extracts of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa mixture while the least (P<0.05) concentrations were observed in the negative control group. Does administered with a mixture of aqueous E. elephantina and R. tomentosa extract had the highest (P<0.05) body weight (65 kg) as well as body condition scores, while the negative control which were administered with distilled water had the least body weights (54 kg) and body condition scores. Does that were administered with a mixture of E. elephantina and R. tomentosa were all pregnant with twins (100%), confirmed by a doppler ultrasound scan.
Socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys (Equus asinus) used for carting in a peri-urban area of South Africa
(2014) Marufu, Madure; Maphosa, V
The broad objective of the study was to determine the socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys used for carting in a peri-urban area. A survey was conducted among 71 donkey owners in Joza, a peri-urban area near Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) of South Africa to investigate their perceptions on socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys used for transport. Two hundred and seventy-one donkeys used for carting were assessed through direct observation of health and behaviour parameters to determine their welfare status. Results revealed that donkeys are indeed of immense value to people, being used daily (54.93%) for income generation activities and at least once per month (7.08%) for domestic chores. Most of the respondents (32%) earned R 600.00 per week while 11% earned at least R 200.00 per week from carting using donkeys. Donkeys were used for carting of goods (90.14%) more than for manure (16.9%). Gender and age of owners significantly (P < 0.05) influence perceptions on source of income while education level influenced their perceptions on carting firewood, goods and water. Results on management practices and health problems encountered by working donkeys showed that most of the owners managed their animals poorly. Most donkeys were being beaten (74.65%) during work, made to travel long distances (43.66%), worked long hours (52.11%) without adequate water (59.10%) and feed supplements (83.10%). Wounds (95.97%), coughing (75.65%) and lameness (64.79%) were some of the health problems encountered by donkeys. Significant relationships (P ˂ 0.05) were observed between owners’ perceptions on management practices and health problems encountered by donkeys. Among the observed animals, 61% were thin and mostly apathetic (26.2%) than medium and fat animals. Responses to observer approaches were significantly associated with sex and body condition score (BCS), with stallions in good body condition being more aggressive. Donkeys having a BCS of 3-5 avoided chin contact either by kicking out or moving away. Results further showed that most of the donkeys were suffering from external injuries, with the hindquarters (39.85%), shoulder (32.10%) and spine (21.77%) being the mostly affected areas. The prevalence of wounds on tail-base, belly, flank and neck were seen in less than 13% of the animals. The prevalence of wounds was influenced by age and BCS of the animals. Young donkeys with good BCS were less affected than old donkeys. Lameness, poor coat condition, external parasites, abnormal mucous membrane and dental problems were observed in less than 30% of the animals. It was concluded that donkeys play a pivotal role economically and socially to the livelihoods of people in a peri-urban area (Joza) in terms of income generation and transportation. However, these animals are experiencing multiple health and welfare problems. Therefore, more access to veterinary services, training on donkey use and management, health and welfare promotion programs are of paramount importance in solving the problem of poor health and welfare in donkeys.
Effects of dietary inclusion of Moringa oleifera leaf meal on growth performance, physico-chemical attributes, oxidative stability and sensory quality of pork
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Nduku, Xola, P.
The objective of the study was to determine growth performance, physico-chemical attributes, oxidative stability and sensory quality of pork from pigs fed one of three dietary treatments, eac containing 0%, 2.5% or 5% (T1, T2 and T3, respectively) Moringa oleifera leaf meal (MOLM). Dietary treatments were formulated to be isonitrogenous and isoenergetic for weaner (6 – 8 weeks) and grower (9 – 13 weeks) phases. Twelve Large White (LW) and 12 Kolbroek (KB) male pigs at 6 weeks of age, initially weighing an average 10 kg, were randomly allocated to one of the dietary treatments, each with four replicates, in individual pens. Feed and water were offered ad libitum. The Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscle of each carcass (n = 24) was sampled for meat quality and fatty acid analyses. Breed differences in measured parameters were observed. In pigs receiving 5% MOLM, the LW had significantly the highest ADFI (P<0.05) than KB pigs. In pigs receiving 2.5% and 5% MOLM, backfat thickness was significantly highest (P<0.05) compared to those receiving 0% MOML. Dietary inclusion of MOLM had no significant effects (P>0.05) on the physico-chemical quality of pork from LW pigs; although it significantly (P<0.05) increased a* and reduced WBSF values in pork from KB pigs. Pork from LW pigs receiving 5% MOLM had significantly increased (P<0.05) n-3 content of the subcutaneous tissue of LW pigs compared to KB, and also when compread to other treatment groups. In both breeds, the composition of PUFA: SFA and n-6: n-3 in the subcutaneous adipose tissue was significantly (P<0.05) lower in T2 and T3 than in T1. The n-3 levels for pork muscle from LW pigs receiving 2.5% and 5% MOLM, and from KB pigs receiving 5% MOLM, were significantly (P<0.05) lower. Inclusions of MOLM significantly (P<0.05) reduced the n-6: n-3 fatty acids in pork from both LW pigs and KB pigs. Consumer scores on sensory attributes (aroma intensity, initial impression of juiciness, first bite, sustained impression of juiciness, muscle fibre and overall tenderness and overall flavor intensity) significantly (P<0.05) increased as the level of MOLM inclusion in the diet increased; and higher scores were observed in fried meat than in boiled for most sensory attributes. It may be concluded that inclusion of MOLM in pig diets up to 5% improved the ADFI, a*, tenderness of pork without adversely affecting the FCR and other physico-chemical quality attributes; and resulted in desired increase in levels of n-3 and reduced the n-6: n-3 fatty acid ratio.
Alternative methods used by small-holder farmers to control ticks and bovine dermatophilosis and the impact of a changing interface of Amblyomma ticks on dermatophilosis in Zimbabwe.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Ndhlovu, Daud Nyosi
This study was carried out to document the ethno-veterinary plants and non-plant remedies that farmers used to control dermatophilosis and ticks, and validate these in vitro and in vivo, as well as determine how the interface of Amblyomma variegatum and A. hebraeum affected the epidemiology of bovine dermatophilosis at selected small-holder areas in North-West Zimbabwe. A structured questionnaire survey was used to collect information on the control methods used by farmers for the control of bovine dermatophilosis and ticks. A total of 39 plants were used by farmers for various diseases, eleven of these plants were used for the control of dermatophilosis while three were for tick control. Across the study sites, dermatophilosis was controlled using eleven plants. Among these plants; six plants; Cissus quadrangularis, Catunaregan spinosa, Pterocarpus angolensis Carica papaya, Manihot esculenta and Blumea decurrens which were frequently used were selected for further studies. In vitro and in vivo studies were conducted to validate the efficacy of these plants. The minimum inhibitory concentration and bactericidal concentration assays were used for the in vitro validation of C. quadrangularis, C. spinosa and P. angolensis. Dermatophilus congolensis was more sensitive to P. angolensis average MIC = 0.63 mg/ml than to C. quadrangularis average MIC = 1.25 mg/ml and C. spinosa average MIC = 2.08 mg/ml. Cissus quadrangularis was selected for in vivo studies as this plant was the one most frequently used by farmers. Its therapeutic efficacy was compared to conventional antibiotics that farmers used to treat dermatophilosis infection. In the in vivo trials C. quadrangularis did not lead to appreciable reduction in clinical disease compared to the conventional drugs. The larval packet assay was the in vitro assay used to validate the efficacy of Carica papaya, Manihot esculenta and Blumea decurrens against larvae of A. hebraeum and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Manihot esculenta at 20 % w/v exhibited the highest larvicidal activity against R. appendiculatus. In the in vivo study, efficacy of the plants were investigated on naturally tick-infested cattle. Mannihot esculenta exhibited the largest tick load reduction compared to the other two plants but its performance was lower than that of conventional acaricides. The effect of A. variegatum and A. hebraeum on bovine dermatophilosis was investigated by evaluating how the presence or absence of these ticks and other herd level risk factors predicted clinical dermatophilosis and its prevalence at herd level. A structured questionnaire survey was carried out to collect data on potential risk factors. At the same time, cattle were physically examined for the presence of bovine dermatophilosis, according to a pre-defined case definition, and presence or absence of Amblyomma ticks was also recorded. The multivariable binary logistic model was developed with disease status as outcome, tick presence and infestion and herd level risk factors as predictors. Of the herds examined clinical bovine dermatophilosis was detected in 45% (84/185; 95% CI: 38.2, 52.6%) of them. Herds infested with Amblyomma variegatum were associated with higher odds (OR= 6.8; 95% CI: 1.71, 27.10) of clinical dermatophilosis while the association was not significant (P > 0.05) in A. hebraeum infested herds. It was concluded that management practices aimed at movement and tick control would help reduce the prevalence of clinical dermatophilosis in herds.
Effects of Aloe ferox in drinking water, on growth performance, blood parameters, meat quality, fatty acid profile and oxidative stability of broiler meat
(2014) Kamba, Evelyn Tatenda
The objective of the study was to determine the effects of Aloe ferox inclusion in drinking water on growth performance, blood biochemistry, physico-chemical characteristics, fatty acid profile and oxidative stability of broiler meat. The importance of A. ferox as a medicinal plant and factors that influence its utilization by communal poultry farmers were also investigated by use of a questionnaire survey. The survey revealed that the majority of respondents (84.6%) faced health challenges in their chickens and many relied (96.2%) on A. ferox to treat diseases and control parasites. The study also revealed that the choice of medicine (traditional or conventional) was influenced (P<0.05) by level of education and income. In the second phase of the research, a total of 600 Ross 308 day-old broilers, were randomly put in 6 treatment groups with 4 replicates, each having 25 birds. Fresh aqueous A. ferox leaf juice (ALJ) was administered in drinking water at a dosage of 20ml/litre to T1, T2 and T3 from day one to day 35, day one to day 14 and day 15 to day 28, respectively. Birds in T4 and T5 (positive controls) were treated with terramycin at the recommended dosage of 14g/litre of drinking water from day one to day 6 and from day 15 to 20, respectively; and birds in T6 (negative control) received distilled water from day 1 to 35. Feed Intake (FI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated for the 5 week trial. After slaughter, carcass characteristics particularly dressing percentage (DP) and relative organ weight (ROW) were calculated. Serum biochemistry was also determined. For meat quality, pH and color were recorded 45 minutes and 24 hours after slaughter from the breast muscle. Fatty acid profiling and oxidative stability were determined using meat samples from the breast and thigh muscles. The results for growth performance showed that thebirds which were given A. ferox for the first two weeks (T2) consumed significantly (P>0.05) more feed (189.4g) than those in the negative control (159.6g) at the beginning of the starter phase. Subsequently, their ADG recorded on day 7 (27.1g) and day 14 (43.1g) were significantly (P<0.05) higher than the negative control (22.8g and 36.2g, respectively). Significant treatment effects (P<0.05) for FCR were reported in the 4th week for the birds that received A. ferox throughout (T1: 3.5). Carcass characteristics were not significantly (P>0.05) affected by A. ferox inclusion in drinking water. The highest high density lipoprotein (HDL) values (2.78 mmol/L) were yielded in T2and T3 had the lowest values (0.61mmol/L) for low density lipoprotein (LDL). For physico-chemical properties, no significant effects (P>0.05) of treatment on pH, colour, cooking loss and tenderness were observed. However, the group treated with A.ferox throughout the production cycle, had the highest pH (6.2), lowest lightness (38.5), highest redness (4.1), highest tenderness (13.86N) and the lowest cooking loss (12.6%). Significant treatment effects (P<0.05) were observed on the composition of the PUFA eicosatrienoic acid (C20:3c8, 11, 14(n-6)) of the breast muscle which was significantly lower in the A. ferox treatment groups than the positive controls. For the thigh muscle, there were significant (P<0.05) treatment effects on composition of palmitoleic acid (C16:1c9) and g-linolenic acid (C18:3c6, 9, 12 (n-3)). No significant (P>0.05) effects were found on oxidative stability of both thigh and breast muscles. In conclusion, the wide use of A. ferox by communal chicken farmers showed its importance as a medicinal plant. Apart from it being an effective medicinal plant, A. ferox inclusion in drinking water results in improved FI, ADG, reduced in LDLC and better g-linolenic and palmitoleic acid composition in the meat.
Meat condemnation in slaughtered bovine species in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Jaja, Ishmael Festus; Muchenje, V.; Green, E.
A study was conducted in three abattoirs represented by the acronym ANA, QTA and EBA, to determine the causes of meat condemnation and to ascertain monetary losses associated with such condemnation. Ante-mortem and active abattoir surveys were conducted on 229, 458 and 687 cattle from the three abattoirs respectively and abattoir slaughter records (n=51, 302) was obtained from 2010 to 2012. The abattoir records showed that the liver was the most frequently condemned (56.9%), followed by the lung (24.1%), then the heart (7.4%), kidney (6.9%), spleen (4.0%), tongue (0.4%) and carcass (0.3%). An assessment of the abattoir secondary data revealed that the major cause of condemnation of the liver at ANA, QTA and EBA was fasciolosis (5.59, 4.48, 2.68), spleen (abscess, 0.35, 0.94, 0.17) kidney (inflammation, 0.94, 1.01, 1.18), heart (inflammation, 0.9, 1.85, 0.75), tongue (abscess, 0.08, 0.03, 0.05) and lungs (emphysema, 1.12, 1.14, 1.16). Disease/conditions recorded during ante-mortem inspection of animals at the lairage were diarrhea, lameness, emaciation, blindness, orchitis, mastitis, skin conditions, and respiratory symptoms corresponding to 8, 1, 13, 2, 3, 6, 9, and 11 percent, respectively. The percentage of condemned organs was higher during the active abattoir meat inspection than in the previous records from the abattoir. Additional losses of tongue due to gunshot injury and the heart due to cysticercosis were recorded. Prevalence of fasciolosis was calculated and seasonal occurrence was determined based on monthly assortment. From the retrospective data, the prevalence of fasciolsis was 2.9 percent (n = 78728) while the annual (2011, 2012, 2013) prevalence of Fasciola infection for AB1 was (3.2, 2.2 and 2.0%), AB2 (6.4, 4.6 and 3.5%) and AB3 (14.4, 6.9 and 9.5%). Higher prevalence was obtain in summer (AB1 = 10.4%, AB2 = 12.8% and AB3 = 10.9%) and autumn (AB1 = 11.2%, AB2 = 10.8% and AB3 = 8.6%) than in winter (AB1 = 9.8%, AB2 = 6.5% and AB3 = 5.9%) and spring (AB1 = 8.2%, AB2 = 7.8% and AB3 = 5.9%). Monetary loss associated with carcass/offal condemnations in the three abattoirs from 2010 to 2012 was 630, 456 South African Rand (ZAR) or 59, 244 United States Dollars (USD), while the summation of losses due to condemnation during the 6 month active meat inspection revealed a higher loss of ZAR 111, 337.5 (10, 383.8 USD) . Monetary losses associated with carcass weight loss, whole and partial liver condemnation due to infection with Fasciola was calculated as ZAR 917, 921.5 (83, 447 USD), ZAR 31, 661.5 (2, 878 USD) and ZAR 19, 112.3 (1, 737 USD) respectively. In conclusion, organs and carcasses were condemned for several disease and non-disease factors and this led to significant financial loss.
The effect of feed restriction duration on growth performance, physico-chemical characteristics and fatty acid composition of meat from broilers.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Gobane, Ziphozihle; Muchenje, V.
The main objective of the study was to determine the effect of feed restriction duration on growth performance, physico-chemical characteristics (colour, ultimate pH, tenderness and cooking loss) and fatty acid composition of meat from broilers. A total of 144 day-old broiler chicks were reared in a deep litter system until slaughter at 42 days. All the chicks were managed in one brooding house for the first 21days. On day 22, the chicks were randomly allocated to three treatments; the control (T1), one week of feed restriction (T2), and two weeks of feed restriction (T3). Three broiler houses with uniform conditions were sub-divided into three compartments. The birds were randomly allocated to each of the nine compartments. Each treatment was replicated three times with 16 birds per compartment being fed as a group and each bird was regarded as the experimental units. The average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI) and the feed conversion ratio (FCR) were computed for each chick each week. Chickens were all slaughtered at 42 days of age and the slaughter weight, carcass weight, and internal organs weights were recorded. Physico-chemical qualities of chicken breast meat such as colour (L*-lightness, b*-yellowness, a* redness, saturation index and hue angle) and meat ultimate pH (pHu) measurements were taken over a 10 days shelf-life period. Breast muscle was also sampled for cooking loss, tenderness and fatty acid profiles. There were treatment effects on the growth performance of broiler chickens. There was no significant effect (P > 0.05) on the relative weights of the chicken heart, liver, gizzard, feet and heads among the treatment groups except for intestine weight. Treatment 1 had higher live weight than treatment 2 and 3. There was significant effect (P < 0.05) on the cooking loss breast muscle, with treatment 1 having highest values. However, feed restriction had no effect (P > 0.05) on the WBSF of breast muscle, although it was highest in T 3. Feed restriction had no effect (P > 0.05) on hue angle, significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed on meat pHu, L *, a*, b* and saturation index after 24 hours of storage. Birds that were exposed to two weeks of feed restriction had the highest ultimate pH (5.99) followed by one week restriction (6.01) and the broilers which were fed ad libitum (5.89). The pHu values in all the treatments were constant from day 1 to day 6 and then T 2 peaked up at day (6.16) before declining at day 8 (5.91). The L* values in all treatments were constant from day 1 to day 7 and then at day 8, treatment 2 reached its peak L* (58.49) and then declined on day 9 (44.38) with T 3 having similar values. The b* values started to decrease from day 3 to day 6 then peaked up again at day 7 except for T 1. There was no significant treatment effects (P > 0.05) on the SI and Hue angle on breast muscle. There was no treatment effect on the major fatty acids of breast muscle. It was concluded that a one week feed restriction had similar effects on growth performance and meat quality of broiler chickens as non-restriction broilers. The meat quality of the broiler muscle was within the normal range, feed restriction did not affect meat quality of broiler meat. Feed restriction had a minimal effect on physicochemical shelf-life indicators of broiler chickens during storage over 10 days. The observation from this study showed that all the treatment had a minimal effect on the fatty acids of the broiler chicken.
Effect of post-slaughter handling on physico-chemical and microbiological quality of red meat along the distribution chain in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Rani, Zikhona, T
The broad objective of the study was to investigate the effect of post-slaughter handling in the distribution chain on red meat quality and safety. A survey was conducted among 300 consumers and 100 meat handlers in five different municipalities (Buffalo City, Nkonkobe, Ngqushwa, Lukhanje and Amahlathi) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa to investigate their perceptions on meat quality and safety, together with challenges faced by meat handlers during the distribution of meat from the abattoir to retailers. The microbiological profile and physico-chemical quality of red meat at different stages of the abattoir to retail outlets in the distribution chain were also determined. Swabs (n=216) and meat samples (n=450) were collected from beef, pork and mutton carcasses during the loading process of carcasses into trucks at the abattoir, when offloading carcasses at the supply points and during marketing. Physico-chemical qualities such as colour (L* - lightness, b* - redness and a* - yellowness) and meat pH measurements were taken at each point. To determine the microbiological profiles of the carcasses, four microbiological parameters were considered: Total bacteria count (general bacteria), coliform count (related to hygiene and indicator for pathogens), Escherichia coli (Gram-negative pathogen) and Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive pathogen). Two types of packaging (vacuum and overwrapping) were used to determine their effect on shelf-life and microbiological quality of red meat under the normal marketing conditions over a storage duration of 15 days. The results from the study showed low awareness of consumers about the pathogenic diseases which arise from meat. A strong significant association (p ˂ 0.05) between educational status and awareness on meat safety was observed. Most of the consumers perceived that quality goes beyond safety such that 35.6% of the respondents indicated that they did not have a problem with consuming spoiled meat, whilst the remaining 64.4 % indicated that they would reject spoiled meat. Although retailers indicated that they take meat safety into consideration in their shops, 92% of the retailers revealed that they do not perform microbial assessment of meat in their shops. A series of loading and off-loading, temperature fluctuations, environmental temperatures and ques during offloading were reported as the major challenges during transportation of carcasses from the abattoir to the supply points. The microbial counts were significantly (p<0.05) higher in samples from the commercial abattoir than in those from the communal abattoir. Escherichia coli was the predominant microbial contaminant in the samples from both abattoirs. When following the chain, total bacterial count (TBC), coliform count (CC) and the levels of E. coli contamination increased progressively between the loading and the off-loading points (5.1 to 7.9 log10 CFU/cm2; 5.0 to 5.6 log10 CFU/cm2 and 2.7 to 3.7 log10 CFU/cm2, respectively). The storage period, meat type, distance during transportation and temperature were found to have a significant impact on the microbial levels during the distribution of carcasses. Distribution stage had a significant effect (p<0.05) on some of the physico- chemical meat quality attributes and differences in the lightness (L*) and redness (a*) values between the loading, off-loading and display points were observed. Consumers perceived retailer class as one of the factors influencing meat quality, but according to the instrumental measurements retailer class did not have a significant effect on physico-chemical meat quality. However, distance and storage duration significantly (p<0.05) affected (L*) and (a*) values in the meat during distribution chain. Vacuum and overwrapping packaging significantly affected (p<0.05) the shelf life of meat. Therefore, it was concluded that post-slaughter handling during the distribution chain affects the physico- chemical, microbiological and shelf-life of meat.
The effect of grain and soya bean-based diets on chicken production, some egg quality traits, and the potential for allergen carryover to eggs and meat.
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Dokora, Adia-En-Michelle; Muchenje, V.
This study determined the effect of maize-, whole wheat-, soya bean-based-diets on the growth performance, egg quality and dressing percentage of chickens, as well as the potential for soy and gluten allergen carryover to eggs and meat from chickens. Twenty 36-week-old Lorham White (LW) hens were divided into two groups and kept in individual cages until they reached 39-weeks of age, with water and feed supplied ad libitum. Ten LW hens were fed a maize/soya bean-based diet (T1) and the other ten birds were fed a maize/soya bean-based diet with a 15% whole wheat inclusion (T2) for a period of four weeks, with weekly individual hen weights and group feed consumption figures being recorded. After a two-week diet adaptation period, six eggs per treatment group were collected every second day from the LW hens’ to measure egg quality traits. Every third day, over a 29-day period, six eggs per treatment were collected and analysed for the presence of soy, gluten and gluten-derived peptides using allergen specific enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) kits. For the broiler trial, a total of 160 Ross 308 mixed sex day old chicks were used in a completely randomized design. Two dietary treatments were assigned to eight cages (replicate) per treatment, with ten birds per cage. The Ross 308 broiler feeding programme consisted of three phases, starter (day 1 to day 10), grower (day 11 to day 20) and finisher (day 21 to day 28). At the beginning of the trial all chicks were fed T1 which contained a maize/soya bean-based diet for a period of 10 days and then eight cages with 10 birds per cage were randomly selected and fed the T2 diet, which contained a maize/soya bean-based diet with a 15% whole wheat inclusion, until they reached 28 days of age. Weekly live weights, feed intake, average daily gain and the average daily feed intake were recorded and calculated. At the end of the grower (day 21) and finisher phase (day 28), one broiler bird was selected per cage to have eight (8) birds per treatment and 16 birds per phase that were slaughtered and breast meat samples were analysed in duplicate for the presence of soy and gluten allergens using ELISA kits. The dressing percentage of hot carcasses was also determined at the end of the finisher phase on eight birds per treatment. For LW hens, live weight (LW) at 39 weeks of age, the average daily feed intake (ADFI) and weekly feed intakes (FI) were significantly different (P < 0.05) between treatments with birds on T2 recording higher gains. As birds age in weeks increased, significant differences (P < 0.05) in live weight values were recorded. Egg quality traits measured (shell weight, yolk weight, albumen weight, albumen height and Haugh units) were significantly different (P < 0.05) between treatments, with eggs from hens receiving T1 recording higher mean values. As hens got older, the colour of egg yolk improved, producing eggs with higher b* (yellowness) values and lower L* (lightness) and a* (redness) mean values. The Haugh unit, significantly improved (P < 0.05) as the hens got older, signifying better quality of eggs. For the broiler birds, growth traits measured indicated that there were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in live weight (LW), average daily feed intake (ADFI), weekly feed intake (FI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), cumulative feed intake (CFI) and cumulative gain (CG) between treatments. No significant differences (P > 0.05) between dressing percentage of broilers from the two treatments were observed. As birds grew, significant differences (P < 0.05) in LW, FI, AFI, FCR, and CFI, over a four week period were recorded. Results of the allergen analyses indicated that soy and gluten allergens were not carried over from feed into eggs and meat of chickens fed a maize/soya bean-based diet and a maize/soya bean-based with a 15% whole wheat inclusion, respectively. In conclusion, a maize/soya bean-based diet and maize/soya bean-based diet with a 15% whole wheat inclusion that contained soy and gluten allergens, are feed sources that promote and stimulate 36-week-old LW hen and Ross 308 chicken growth. Egg production was also maintained without the possibility of soy and gluten allergens being carried over from the feed into the eggs and meat.
The classification of beef, pork and mutton carcasses in a selected high throughput abattoir in the Eastern Cape, South Afric
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Soji, Zimkhitha
The carcass classification system was implemented in South Africa as a quality assurance scheme to address consumer uncertainties on the quality of meat they purchase. Although carcass classification is presumed to provide information that can be useful to the meat industry from primary producers to customers, it is argued that the standards used in the system provide inadequate description of the carcass quality related characteristics as it only describes scores and measurements but does not rank for meat quality. Nonetheless, attributes used to evaluate meat quality include eating quality, appearance, freshness, and nutritional value. However, these attributes are neglected in the South African classification system. Two trials were, therefore, conducted to evaluate the classification of red meat and characterise the quality of beef carcasses subjected to the SA classification system at a high throughput abattoir, where five different classification characteristics (age, sex, conformation, bruising and fatness) were used for sheep and cattle carcasses, while the PORCUS classification system was used for pigs. On the first trial a total of 300 animals comprising of 100 cattle, 100 sheep and 100 pigs were used to evaluate the associations between animal traits, carcass traits and carcass classification, while on the second trial beef samples from the Muscularis longissimus thoracis et lumborum of Angus, Bonsmara, Fleckvieh, Non-descript and Simmental genotypes (n=175) were harvested to characterise the quality of beef carcass classes. Significant associations (P<0.05) were found between carcass classes and genotypes of cattle, sheep and pigs. Almost 70 percent of cattle carcasses were in the C classes mainly in the C2 carcass class, while 77 percent of sheep carcasses were of A2 class and 50 percent of pig carcasses were of P class. Significant differences (P<0.05) were observed across genotypes on some meat characteristics (a*, Hab, pH24, TL percent, CL percent and WBSF) of beef carcass classes. The C2 carcass class of Angus genotype had a darker colour (L*) than the Non-descript and Bonsmara genotypes. Redness (a*) of the Bonsmara C2 carcass class differed (P<0.05) from that of Angus, Fleckvieh and Non-descript genotypes. The Non-descript genotype had more yellow subcutaneous fat than all other genotypes. Angus and Simmental genotypes had the toughest meat (40.29 ± 11.62 and 38.71 ± 9.33, respectively), while Non-descript and Fleckvieh genotypes had tender meat (31.53 ± 12.62 and 32.00 ± 7.92, respectively). It was concluded that meat quality characteristics varied within carcasses of the same class across genotypes. Thus consumers might pick differences on the quality of carcasses falling within the same class due to the breed effect which, however, does not form part of the SA classification system.
The potential utilization of Acacia Karroo in improving communal goat nutrition in the False Thornveld of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) William, Maguraushe
The study assessed the difference between the performance of goats browsing on Acacia karroo communal browsing lands and open grasslands as well as determining nutritional composition of A. karroo leaves in the False Thornveld of Eastern Cape Province of South Africa at different times of the year. A total of 80 communal household goat herds and eight A. karroo browse trees were monitored for a period of 12 months in a parallel experiment. In the first experiment, most entries as births were recorded in large herds within the A. karroo encroached community, especially during the hot-wet season (November to February). Households with large herd sizes sold and slaughtered significantly (P<0.05) more goats than those with small herd sizes in both communities. Mortality was significantly (P< 0.05) higher during the hot-wet season in the open grassland. Households keeping small herds in open grassland had the lowest goat production potential (GPP) in the cool-dry season (May to August). The average daily gain (ADG) and body condition scores (BCS) of goats browsing in A. karroo encroached areas were generally higher than in open grassland, especially during the cool-dry season. However, the GPP and goat production efficiency (GPE) were not significantly (P> 0.05) different between the two communities across the seasons. In the second experiment, all selected A. karroo browse trees had crude protein (CP) above 110 g/kg of dry matter (DM) which is sufficient to maintain the requirements of goats at low to medium production. The A. karroo browse contained significantly (P<0.05) higher ADF (496.4±33.8 g/kg DM), CT (18.4±4.2 g/kg DM), Ca (26.8±0.8 g/kg DM) and Mg (2.9±0.03 g/kg DM) during the cool-dry season than other times of the year. There were no significant (P>0.05) differences on the amounts of NDF, TL, SP, P, S, Zn, Mn and Cu throughout the study period. The level of CP (182.4±6.7 g/kg DM) was significantly (P<0.05) higher during the hot-wet season than other times of the year. It was suggested that A. karroo leaves have the potential to be integrated into communal goat feeding systems in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. It was concluded that the goats which browsed A. karroo trees largely performed better in both growth and reproduction parameters than those which grazed in open grassland especially during the cool-dry season. Acacia karroo leaves relatively maintain considerable levels of CP and minerals throughout the year which are sufficient to support low to medium communal goat production.
Determination and validation of medicinal plants used by farmers to control internal and external parasites in goats in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Sanhokwe, Marcia
The broad objective of the study was to determine and validate medicinal plants used by resource-limited farmers to control internal and external parasites in goats in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. A survey was conducted among 50 farmers and three herbalists to determine medicinal plants used to control parasites in goats. The survey revealed nine plant species belonging to eight families that were used. Among the identified plant species, Aloe ferox, Acokanthera oppositifolia and Elephantorrhiza elephantina were the plants having the highest Fidelity Level for their use, each scored 100.00%, followed by Albuca setosa (83.33%). These plants were then selected for validation studies. Gas-Chromatography-Mass-Spectrometry (GC-MS) revealed 7, 33, 26 and 32 bioactive phytochemicals in A. ferox, E. elephantina, A. oppositifolia and A. setosa, respectively. Terpenes and fatty acids were present, oxygenated terpenes being the most abundant hydrocarbons present in all the four plant species. The effect of acetone, methanol and ethanol extracts of leaves of Aloe ferox and Acokanthera oppositifolia on tick repellency and acaricidal activity were investigated on blood engorged Ambylomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus decoloratus ticks at concentration 15, 30 and 50%. The 30 and 50% acetone extract of A. ferox and Dazzel dip had the highest acaricidal properties of 100%. The 50% methanol extract of A. oppositifolia and 50% acetone extract of A. ferox had the highest repellency activity of 89% and 85.33%, respectively. Results from this study revealed that the efficacy of medicinal plants used by farmers to control ticks vary with the type of solvent used for extracting the bioactive compounds. Furthermore, it revealed that Aloe ferox and A. opppositifolia plant extracts possess repellent and acaricidal activities. In a study to investigate the anthelminthic effect of crude extracts of Elephantorrhiza elephantina and Albuca setosa plants, significant anthelminthic effect on nematodes was observed in both plants. In this study, all E. elephantina and A. setosa extracts caused paralysis and mortality. Methanol was the most effective solvent in extracting bioactive compounds and methanol extract showed the best anthelminthic effects among the crude extracts investigated in both plants. The least time taken for the worms to be paralysed was 8.33 mins and 14.33mins in 100mg/ml methanol extracts of E. elephantina and A. setosa, resepectively. Methanol extract of E. elephantina and A. setosa (100mg/ml) had the highest anthelminthic activity and mortality was recorded after 18mins and 20mins, respectively. Results from this study revealed that these two plants possess anthelminthic activities. The study revealed that resource-limited farmers use medicinal plants to control internal and external parasites in goats. Gas-Chromatography-Mass-Spectrometry analysis showed that these plants contain bioactive compounds that have a potential in controlling parasites. Validation studies showed that A. ferox and A. oppositifolia possess repellent and acaricidal activities whereas A. setosa and E. elephantina possess anthelminthic activities.
Characterisation of goat production systems in selected coastal areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Dube, Kululeko
The main objective of the study was to characterise goat production systems by resource limited farmers in coastal areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. A household survey followed by monitoring of goat flocks was conducted among 100 communal farmers in Port St Johns and Umquma Municipalities. All data was analysed using SAS and simulation models were developed using the DynaMod model. The male household heads (75 percent) owned most of the goats, followed by female de-jure (16 percent) and de-facto (6 percent) heads. Goats were mainly used for ceremonies (38 percent) and generation of income (37 percent). The farmers kept mostly indigenous goats together with Boer breed and their crosses. Most farmers controlled internal parasites through regular dosing. The control of external parasites was through dipping. The goat housing was made of wooden poles without any roofing and the kids were kept together with the mature goats in these structures. The goats were marketed through informal channels at an average price of R1500 per goat. Most farmers preferred selling castrated male goats (57 percent) with peak sales in winter and late summer. Generally, the reproductive performance was low across all villages. Majola village had the lowest fecundity (68 percent) and prolificacy (111 percent) while the other villages showed higher fertility rates (Prolificacy 120-124 percent; Fecundity 80-88 percent). Low kid survivability was associated with multiple births as villages with higher fertility rates had the highest infant mortality (31-38 percent). The villages of Port St Johns Municipality had high goat populations in both current and improved production simulations. Inadequate nutrition supply however restricted the growth potential of the Majola flock while genetic unfitness limited that of Izibityolo, Mission and Klanisi villages. iii Goat class distribution was characterised by a few bucks and high doe proportions across all the villages. Breeding ratio per village was above the recommended 0.04 in all villages despite lack of buck ownership by most households. The effective population sizes were all below 50 hence endangering the existence of indigenous Xhosa lob-eared goats in these populations. The failure to control breeding resulted in high inbreeding rates that surpassed the acceptable threshold level of 0.063 in all villages except Majola. The negative relationship between effective population size and fertility indicators revealed the deleterious effect of inbreeding to flock productivity. This was also further evidenced by the positive relationship between fecundity and kid mortality. These results revealed that there were high levels of genetic unfitness resulting in offspring adaptation failure as shown by high kid mortalities in the flocks. In conclusion, goat production was characterised by ineffective management strategies which led to lower reproductive performance as there were high inbreeding levels across the villages.
The effects of distance, lairage duration and animal-related factors on pre-slaughter stress indicators, carcass characteristics, nanostructure and technological properties of beef
(University of Fort Hare, 2015) Chulayo, Amanda Yucca
The main objective of the current study was to determine the effect of distance travelled (DT), lairage duration (LDhr) and animal-related factors (animal class, breed, sex) on pre-slaughter stress indicators, carcass characteristics, nanostructure and technological properties of beef. The study was conducted in an Eastern Cape abattoir under the Buffalo City District Municipality. Six genotypes of cattle (Beefmaster, Bonsmara, Brahman, Holstein-Friesian, Non-descript and Nguni) brought for slaughter at the abattoir on different days were used in the study. Slaughter weight (SWT), warm and cold carcass weight (WCW and CCW), fatness and conformation of each animal were measured and recorded. Representative samples of blood plasma and meat quality from the Muscularis thoracis et lumborum (LTL) were collected at slaughter and 24 hours after slaughter, respectively. Heat shock proteins 70kDa (HSPA1A), glucose (GLU), cortisol (CORT), creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were determined from the blood plasma. The representative LTL muscle was used to determine ultimate pH (pHu), lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), meat temperature (Tm), Warner Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF) and histological structure of beef. There were significant effects of distance on pHu, Tm, a*, b*, TL%, CK and LDH. Pearson correlations were observed between distance travelled (DT), creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), ultimate pH (pHu), colour coordinates (L*, a* and b*) and Warner Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF). Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the 1st (pHu), 2nd (Tm) and 3rd (L*) principal components were the critical meat quality attributes. Positive relationships between carcass weights and beef quality characteristics for bovine cattle where the cumulative percentage of the first six principal component`s (PC`s) (SWT, WCW, CCW, DP, pHu and Tm contributed to 93.4 % of the total variance. Significant correlation coefficients between DT (r = 0.15), LDhr (r = 0.29), Ta (r = -0.52), Tm (r = 0.26), L* (r = 0.33), a* (r = 0.32) and WBSF (r = -0.49) were observed. Meat from Brahman (BR), Non-descript (ND) and Nguni (NG) cows had visible skeletal muscle fibres which were thin and long indicating improved tenderness of beef. Exposing animals to longer hours of transportation did not only reduce glucose levels but also increased the expression of HSPA1A and levels of cortisol. The CK and LDH were not related to beef quality. Therefore, CK and LDH can be used as indicators of animal welfare in slaughter cattle but cannot be used to predict the quality of meat. Bulls were the heaviest, although heifers had the highest dressing percentage than cows. Furthermore, the nanostructure of beef indicated that heifers had the best muscle fibres, sarcomere length and visible intercalated discs. The observed nanostructures of Nguni genotype are an indication of tender meat. Beef from heifers of Nguni had visible and tender meat with traces of intramuscular fat while males had shorter sarcomere length and tougher meat.

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