Department of Social Work/ Social Development

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Prevalance of Substance Use and Abuse Among Black University Students and the Factors Influencing Them: Implications For Substance Abuse Prevention
(University of Fort Hare, 1996-11) Hewana, N.N
Substance use and abuse is widespread throughout the world, including South Africa. Substance abuse constitutes an individual, a family and a social problem. Because of the dearth of information concerning the extent of the abuse as well as conditions associated with it, particularly among Black Youth in South Africa, the present study sought to fill this gap. The present study investigated the prevalence of substance use and abuse among Black university students. Firstly, it examined the extent to which the university students abused various substances such as alcohol, tobacco, spirits, sleeping medicine, hallucinogens, barbiturates, whiffers, mandrax, dagga, amphetamines and heroin. Secondly, it investigated the variables that are associated with use and abuse of these substances. The research design used was a questionnaire- based survey. The questionnaire consisted of both open ended and closed questions, thus it yielded both quantitative and qualitative data. The first part of the survey was essentially descriptive while the second part was analytical. The measuring instrument that was used was a self- report inventory adopted from an existing questionnaire as adopted by Bodisch (1994), Kata (1994)and Stubbs (1994) which was itself based on another questionnaire originally developed by du Tait (1974). A convenient sample consisting of 520 undergraduates Psychology students at the University of Fort Hare was used as participants.
Male perspectives on Gender violence in South Africa: The case of Nkonkobe Municipal Area.
(University of Fort Hare, 2008-11) Danga, Talent
The study explores the experiences of men who perpetrated violence against women in the domestic sphere. The study’s overarching concern is that violence has been largely seen as a women’s problem and not an issue that is Central to men and yet in most cases are the perpetrators of this violence. Consequently‚ men have not been targeted in initiatives that curb domestic violence (Salo, 2005). It is in this frame of reference that this study saw it imperative to focus on the male perspective of gender violence. The study aims to find factors that contribute to male violence and in turn recommend practical and appropriate strategies of dealing with male violence perpetrators.
Ecotherapy in post-conflict healing: a study of the experiences of ex-combatants in the Eastern Cape township of Mdanstane
(University of Fort Hare, 2011) Mbona, Sifingo
During this research project, an attempt was made to understand the role of ecotherapy as a therapeutic model in post conflict healing. The aim was to evaluate the application and significance of ecotherapy as an intervention strategy for post conflict healing for individuals who were exposed to violent encounters during the liberation struggle. Eight respondents (involved in the arms struggle) from Mdanstane Township in the Eastern Cape, were taken through a series of workshops as part of an ecotherapy healing process. The research concluded that all the participants had suffered from some form of traumatic stress because of their exposure to violence and violent experiences. Moreover, on closer examination the situation of ex-combatants proved to be more complex and often volatile, due to the absence of social support, loss of social status, absence of economic, employment opportunities, and the dislocation from their families and communities. Subsequent to the ecotherapy intervention, a positive outlook amongst the participants was recorded. Furthermore, there was an indication of a significant increase in their sense of self-worth and personal development, which influenced the manner in which the participants viewed the world, related to their families or communities and responded to life in general. Essentially, the research findings, conclusions, and recommendations contributed towards a better understanding of ex-combatants and the value that could be derived from ecotherapy as a post conflict healing method for individuals and groups exposed to violence and trauma.
The role of marriage preparation programs in preventing divorce : narratives of recently married individuals in Baffalo city municipality
(University of Fort Hare, 2013) Mujoko, Rumbidzai
The study explores the perceptions of recently married individuals on the role of marriage preparation programs in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality. The study’s concern is that despite the fact that marriage preparation programs have been conducted in most parts of the world, some South African marriages are still affected by divorce. In 2009, 34.2% of the divorces came from the African population group and 5, 2% from the Indian/Asian population group. (StatsSA, 2009). Consequently, many marriages are affected by marital distress and divorce which has detrimental effects on the individual, family, communities and the nation as a whole. Marriage preparation programs are set up with the main aim of preventing divorce. It is in this frame of reference that this study saw it imperative to focus on the role of these programs. The study aims to examine what recently married individuals perceive as the role of marriage preparation programs and in turn recommend practical preventative and treatment strategies that can be employed by service providers of marriage preparation programs. The research drew its theoretical framework from the adult attachment theory, which developed from John Bowlby’s attachment theory in children. Guilford (2005) states that the application of attachment theory to adult relationships is a revolutionary event for the modality of couple therapy which gives the therapist a coherent, relevant, widely applicable and well researched framework for understanding the complex phenomenon of the adult love relationships. The study also drew from Jonathan Smith’s Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, a qualitative research approach which is committed to the examination of how people make sense of their major life experiences. Semi-structured interviews were utilized during data collection. A purposive sampling method was used to select fifteen recently married (3-5 years) individuals who attended a marriage preparation course before their marriage. The results of this study revealed that marriage preparation plays a major role in divorce prevention through improving good communication skills, helping in managing finances, addressing some cultural beliefs that might affect the marriage negatively, alerting individuals about potential marital challenges, encouraging seeking for help from professional counsellors, providing ways to deal with marital problems, improves marital commitment and increasing the level of marriage readiness. However, the study also found out that some marriage preparation programs in Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality exclude some topics that are perceived as important by participants. In addition, some participants who attended a marriage preparation programs still have difficulties in implementing some of the topics. Recommendations and implications for social work practice are documented in the research.
Understanding the sexual risk behaviours of people living with different mental illnesses and their vulnerability to HIV infection.
(University of Fort Hare, 2013) Ndlovu, Deogracious
This study was primarily carried out in order to assess the sexual risk behaviours of people living with mental illnesses as well as their vulnerability to HIV infection. It sets out the basic realities of the interaction between mental illness and HIV/AIDS and its impact on individuals and communities. This study explores the implications for health policy and practice, and suggests how to provide better support and assistance in the empowerment of people living with mental illness as far as HIV and AIDS is concerned, including community support. It was also the aim of this study to look into the factors that expose this group of people to HIV infection as well as to understand the link between HIV/AIDS and mental illness. It also tested the inclusion of people with mental disabilities in HIV and AIDS prevention and education programmes. The research was conducted on the basis of a qualitative research design. A semi-structured interview schedule was used in broad based interviews to gather information from caregivers or guardians of people with mental disabilities as well as the professionals in the mental health sector. The results of the research revealed that people who are living with mental illnesses are a vulnerable group as regards HIV infection. It also conveys that this group of people presents with sexual risk behaviours, which increase their vulnerability to HIV and AIDS. In addition, there are many barriers against the inclusion of this group of people in HIV and AIDS prevention and education programmes and, as a result, they are often excluded from participating in such programmes. Importantly, the findings of this study acknowledge that there is a two-fold relationship between mental illness and HIV/AIDS. It indicates that mental illnesses are still regarded as mysterious in the community and there is much stigma and discrimination towards the mentally ill, increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection.
The perceptions of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) Housing beneficiaries in South Africa on the extent to which the project meet their Housing needs. The case of Golf Course Estate in Alice Town, Eastern Cape Province.
(University of Fort Hare, 2013) Manomano, Tatenda
The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of RDP beneficiaries on the extent to which the RDP housing project meets their housing needs in South Africa through a case study of Golf Course Estate in Alice Town with the following specific objectives; to assess the extent to which the Alice Golf Course housing project has achieved the RDP programme objectives; to establish beneficiaries‟ perceptions on the extent the RDP Alice Golf Course houses meet their needs; and to explore the level of satisfaction on the RDP houses by beneficiaries. This study utilized triangulation of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies with qualitative as the dominant approach while quantitative was less dominant. The qualitative design took the form of a case study while the quantitative took the form of mini survey. The study sampled 72 participants from the study population. The study utilized an interview guide and a questionnaire as instruments of data collection. The findings indicated that the gender representation of the beneficiaries was skewed. This is because there were more females heading the houses than males; unemployment was also high; most participants were unmarried and most were adults. This study also discovered that most people residing in these houses are not the real owners who were allocated the houses. There were qualitative problems associated with the components of these houses such as poor roofing, doors, windows, floors and walls. Service delivery complaints were based on inadequate access to clean water, small size and spacing of the RDP house. Security was also a challenge because all the houses did not have street lights and the roads were very bad. Though it is commendable that drainage and sewer facilities are available, but they are not serving their purpose since there is no water in these houses. The findings also indicated that there were discrepancies in allocation of the houses; pervasiveness of social ills; inadequate consultative meetings between the RDP Administrator or social worker and the beneficiaries; as well as the pervasiveness of HIV/AIDS among other issues. This researcher recommended that the government needs to promote economic empowerment to deal with unemployment; to improve the quality of the material building the houses; improvement on service delivery gaps; to beef up infrastructure; renovation and revamping of current houses; to establish commissions of inquiry to deal with corruption; to honour and monitor waiting lists. Partnership with other stakeholders was also critical, in addressing access to social services and helps deal with social ills and run behaviour modification campaigns. This researcher also recommended that there is a need to carry out further research on the role played by the municipalities in the RDP housing project as well as conducting a purely qualitative research to further explore the perceptions of other stakeholders, NGOs, traditional leaders, church leaders, and police on the implementation of the housing project. This researcher advises that such a research could be carried out through focus group discussions and also since this study was bound by a case study it is also necessary for similar research to be carried out in different places in South Africa.
The role of marriage preparation programs in preventing divorce :narratives of recently married individuals in Baffalo city municipality
(University of Fort Hare, 2013) Mujoko, Rumbidzai
The study explores the perceptions of recently married individuals on the role of marriage preparation programs in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality. The study’s concern is that despite the fact that marriage preparation programs have been conducted in most parts of the world, some South African marriages are still affected by divorce. In 2009, 34.2% of the divorces came from the African population group and 5, 2% from the Indian/Asian population group. (StatsSA, 2009). Consequently, many marriages are affected by marital distress and divorce which has detrimental effects on the individual, family, communities and the nation as a whole. Marriage preparation programs are set up with the main aim of preventing divorce. It is in this frame of reference that this study saw it imperative to focus on the role of these programs. The study aims to examine what recently married individuals perceive as the role of marriage preparation programs and in turn recommend practical preventative and treatment strategies that can be employed by service providers of marriage preparation programs. The research drew its theoretical framework from the adult attachment theory, which developed from John Bowlby’s attachment theory in children. Guilford (2005) states that the application of attachment theory to adult relationships is a revolutionary event for the modality of couple therapy which gives the therapist a coherent, relevant, widely applicable and well researched framework for understanding the complex phenomenon of the adult love relationships. The study also drew from Jonathan Smith’s Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, a qualitative research approach which is committed to the examination of how people make sense of their major life experiences. Semi-structured interviews were utilized during data collection. A purposive sampling method was used to select fifteen recently married (3-5 years) individuals who attended a marriage preparation course before their marriage
The implications of stigma towards people living with HIV / AIDS in the township of Dimbaza, Buffalo city metropolitan municipality
(2014) Xabendlini, Sindiswa
HIV/AIDS-related stigma is still a stumbling block to HIV/AIDS prevention strategies in many communities. The phenomenon of stigma affects the social functioning of HIV positive individuals and their mental state as well. This study therefore, sought to explore the implications of stigma towards people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in the Township of Dimbaza. Multiple sources of data or data triangulation were employed. The study made use of individual in-depth interviews which consisted of 10 individuals who were HIV positive from an organisation working with PLWHA in the township and a focus group discussion comprising of 8 practitioners. Thematic analysis was employed to analyse data and the strengths perspective was used as a lens for discussing the research findings. The findings showed that PLWHA and community members had accepted HIV/AIDS through empowerment from HIV/AIDS debates, but stigma still existed among some people. It was found that mythical beliefs which were propelled by some traditional leaders were vehicles of stigma. Results also revealed that PLWHA were stigmatised by some of the practitioners who were supposed to protect them. PLWHA showed their potential and strengths in dealing with stigma but required more assistance and support to encourage them. Therefore, it was recommended that assistance from eclectic stakeholders for the sustainability of their activities to reduce HIV/AIDS-related stigma and to get strengthened would make them achieve their intended goals on their own.
Qualitative evaluation of social work field instruction offered by universities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Schmidt, Kim
This research study describes an evaluation of social work field instruction offered by universities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Qualitative data was collected from agency field instructors, university fieldwork coordinators and social work students. This study’s findings indicated that field instruction needs a good foundation of experiential learning that is facilitated by report writing, journal writing and agency and university supervision. Findings also indicated a need for the screening, selection and training of agency field instructors. There was also an indication that universities should develop selection procedures to ensure that the best possible students are accepted into the Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) programme. All findings indicated that field instruction programmes are most effective when there is a strong university agency partnership. The study concludes by making recommendations for future development of standards relating to field instruction programmes in the Eastern Cape and South Africa.
An evaluation of the role of child and youth care centres in the implementation of South Africa's Children's Act
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Agere, Leonard Munyaradzi
The aim of this study was to evaluate the role played by CYCCs to provide support and protection to children who have been found to be in need of care, according to the criteria given in the Children’s Act No. 38/2005 as amended. The study made use of a qualitative approach and the research design was provided by the case study. Data was gathered by means of semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. The most important findings to emerge from the study were that the factors which affect the operation of CYCCs are either institutional, or else challenges arising from issues pertaining to infrastructure and human resources. However, it was also acknowledged that, despite the challenges which affect their ability to provide their services to young people, the CYCCs had also made progressive steps to halt the suppression of the fundamental rights of children. It has been recommended that the government should apply comprehensive funding to the objectives of the Children’s Act, which would entail increasing the subsidies to CYCCs. It has also been recommended that the Policy on Financial Rewards should call for the same benefits and salary scales to apply for professional staff working in the government and to those working in the CYCCs. The repercussions from failing to adjust to these recommendations will inevitably lead to the employment of a remedial model of care.
The experiences of adolescents preparing to leave foster care on the grounds of age in East London.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Tarisai, Mugove Kadungure
Adolescents in the process of leaving foster care often have personal histories characterized by instability and one or more related factors such as poor parenting, separation from their families, poverty, abuse, neglect, abandonment, personal loss and disruptions resulting from displacement. As a result, these adolescents are often unprepared to be released from the support provided by government institutions. As few studies have investigated the experiences of children in foster care in South Africa, the principal aim of this study was to investigate the experiences of adolescents leaving the foster care system in East London, South Africa when they reach the age requiring them to do so. The qualitative method was adopted for this study, and thirty-five in-depth interviews were conducted. The study found that for children in foster care the adolescent stage is the most crucial. It was also learned that the foster care process itself is long, arduous and complex. The adolescents experience stress and uncertainty and are not given any support from the government or social workers as they approach the age at which they will be required to leave foster care. It is recommended that support be extended at least until after secondary schooling has been completed and the adolescents are able to fend for themselves.
An exploration of the effectiveness of community home -based care programmes in mitigating the effects of HIV and AIDS in rural areas in Zimbabwe : the case of Shurugwi district
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Mangwiro, Vongai Patience
The aim of the dissertation was to explore the effectiveness of Community Home-based Care programmes in mitigating the effects of HIV and AIDs in rural areas in Zimbabwe in Shurugwi. Triangulation method was used to collect and analyze data from one hundred and sixty four respondents using survey questionnaires and in-depth- interviews. Theoretically, the study was underpinned by the Basic Needs Approach which supports that every human being needs food, shelter and health in order for one to have a meaningful life. The findings of the study showed that CHBC programmes are effective in improving the conditions of the patients and also in mitigating the effects of HIV and AIDS in societies. Nevertheless, the findings show that patients still suffer in the long-run to improve their conditions because of lack of resources and food, shortage of funds and CHBC kits, and donor fatigue. Resultantly, this gives a double burden to all the caregivers when they provide palliative care to patients. Conclusively, more should be done to improve the conditions of the patients because they still face problems in the fight against HIV and AIDS.
Perception of males on the relationship between sexual risk taking behaviors and HIV/ AIDS in Nkonkobe Municipality
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Sonjani, Zolani Mario
The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of males on the relationship between sexual risk taking behaviours and HIV/AIDS in Nkonkobe Municipality with the following objectives: to explore the risk taking behaviours relevant in Hogsback Township and Msobomvu location; to explore the perceptions of males regarding the relationship between sexual risk taking behaviours and HIV/AIDS; to determine the perceptions of males towards HIV/AIDS test; to suggest strategies to ameliorate the lives of males in Hogsback Township and Msobomvu location. A research method that was employed in this study was quantitative and it took the form of mini survey.
The experiences of women leaving an abusive marriage.
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Thompson, Merise Clare
The focus of this study is to determine the experiences of women leaving an abusive marriage. These experiences are classified in terms of support factors and challenges when leaving. Included in this study are the circumstances that contributed to making a decision to leave the abusive situation and the long-term effects on the participants. Domestic violence is a highly prevalent phenomenon that is found all over the world, including South Africa. According to some research, the extent of family violence warrants an urgent solution to be devised, as a comparison is drawn between family violence and human rights violations. This study was conducted, using Interpretative Phenomenological Methodology. Fifteen women were interviewed by way of using semi-structured questions. The scope of this study included investigating: the types of abuse; childcare issues; the process of leaving – including the role of the justice, medical and religious institutions; long-term effects of abuse and the role of self-worth in deciding to leave. It was found that there was a significant correlation between the literature and the evidence found through this study in terms of challenging and support factors. Challenging factors for participants included: isolation; financial dependence on the abuser; perceived or real lack of social support; a lack of awareness around the effects of the abuse on the children and a diminished sense of self. In contrast to this are the support factors which included: family support, financial independence, evidence of harm to the children and a renewed sense of value in the ‘self’. Recommendations for practice describe ways in which the medical, justice and social service departments can enhance their services to families who are living in abusive circumstances by using a strengths-based approach.
Old age grant and food security in South Africa : the case of Goshen village community, Amathole manicipality
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Ncube, Ntombizehlile
The aim of this study was to examine the impact of the Old Age Grant on boosting the food security of the rural-household dwellers in the Goshen community in the Amathole Municipality in South Africa. The study investigated the extent to which the Old Age Grant ensures the food security of its beneficiaries at the household level. This study was conducted in the Goshen Community, a rural area in the Eastern Cape. Methodological triangulation was adopted for this study, in that a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods of collecting data was employed. The data was collected by making use of household survey questionnaires and focus group discussions.
Reintegration of ex-offenders on community : a case study of Whittlesea township in Lukhanji municipality
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Ndike, Gcobani
This research is an exploratory study on the challenges that offenders face upon release from prison which in turn contribute to recidivism. The study utilized labelling theory.Furthermore, the qualitative methodology used for this research included in-depth interviews and focus group discussion in order to gather information on the challenges that contribute to recidivism.
Coping with poverty : a study of strategies adopted by single mothers in Chiredzi town , Zimbabwe
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Mafa, Itai
This research sought to assess the effectiveness of the coping strategies that are employed by single mothers in alleviating and averting poverty in Chiredzi Town, Zimbabwe. The researcher wanted to investigate whether the survival strategies implemented in towns of developing countries are able to rescue single mothers from the grasps of poverty.
An exploration of the practice of cross- Racial adoption South Africa, East london
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Kausi, Nyasha
The purpose of this research was to explore the practice of cross-racial adoption in South Africa using a case study of East London. The study was qualitative in nature and employed both in-depth interviews and focus group discussions to collect data from six social workers, two managers, seven adoptive parents and five community members. These were most appropriate for eliciting relevant, valuable and rich information for analysis. The process of collecting data also made use of observations. Data was analysed qualitatively, using thematic analysis of the content of the data, which employed an interpretative approach, resulting in a presentation of data, which is textual rather than statistical. The study found that the practice of cross- racial adoption (CRA) in South Africa is a controversial, yet an increasing phenomenon in which most Black children are being adopted by White parents. In addition, race and culture were found to have a great impact on shaping the practice of CRA. The roles of social workers, managers and adoption agencies were examined in the following contexts: determining the adoptability of children; recruiting and selection of prospective adoptive parents; the provision of necessary information and counselling to biological and adoptive parents before consenting to the adoption of a child; helping with placement transitions and providing post-adoption services to ensure lasting and strong adoptive relationships. In addition, perceptions of issues such as cultural genocide, the well-being and the best interests of adopted children, racial identity, a colour-blind society, acculturation, racial consciousness and role modelling were also examined. The study concluded that although the practice of CRA is an acceptable form of custody for children in need of care and protection, despite any legislation pertaining to it, it is still an area which requires more attention from scholars and researchers. It should be a matter of national importance from relevant officials and policy makers in order to overcome the legacy of racial segregation, which characterised the era of apartheid rule, in which race was of great significance. On the basis of the findings of the study, pertinent recommendations have been made to various stakeholders, including social workers, the Department of Social Development and policy makers.
Exploring the vulnerability of black women to HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe :a case of Masvingo urban area
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Chikono, George
The problem question that this study seeks to address is the perpetual defencelessness of women to HIV and AIDS. The study was greatly influenced by personal concern on the circumstances of predominantly black women in the 21st century as they continue to lag behind in many aspects of life. They continue to be the custodian of poverty and it is so perturbing that on top of being marginalised again they constitute lamentable statistics of HIV and AIDS infection. Hence, in the quest to understand the life dynamics which influence black women vulnerability qualitative research methodology was implemented so as to examine the subject matter. Purposive sampling technique was applied to select participants from various support groups in Rujeko and Mucheke High density suburbs as well as practitioners from pre-HIV test and post-HIV test counselling centres within Masvingo urban area. Findings unanimously pinpoint the economic hardships and series of dry seasons that the nation has been experiencing. Tilted public terrain forced women in Masvingo urban area and girls as young as 10years of age survive by selling sex for subsistence. Lack of industrial activity, poor infrastructure, sky rocketing living standards, low educational attainment and high level of unemployment are indicators of poverty and prime determinants of high HIV prevalence among most black women. It is because of above mentioned life circumstances that women encounter which makes them more prone to HIV infection as they end up indulging in transactional sex in order to provide food on the table. Moreover, HIV and AIDS prevalence has soared among women due to the fact that the patriarchal system is still instrumental in the mainstream resulting in women being side lined. The vicious system does not only condone women domination but it fuels women exploitation signified by exclusive male hegemony in the public sphere. Interestingly, Masvingo urban area is the second city from Beitbridge border post but despite of its proximity to the port of entry it is still underdeveloped since most of manufacturing industries are concentrated in Harare. Notably, the government response to women vulnerability has been substantial in the free provision of antiretroviral treatment (ART) but this has done little to transform the livelihood of People Living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHA). However, there have emerged some NGOs which try to cushion the burden especially for those suffering to the disease by helping them form support groups as well as equipping them with life skills. Ironically, men who are regarded as perfect transmitters of the scourge due to their biological make up continue to be onlookers in prevention campaigns. The study recommends that men have to spearhead the acceptance of voluntary counselling and HIV testing as well as becoming instrumental in prevention campaigns. Also there is need for laws which instil follow-ups and accountability particularly service delivery to People Living with HIV and AIDS. Ignoring the circumstances of black women in the mainstream outweighs the possible achievement of an HIV free generation.
Challenges faced by traditional healers when treating people living with HIV and AIDS : the case of Intsika municipality, Eastern Cape Province
(University of Fort Hare, 2014) Zimba, Zibonele France
The aim of the study was to examine the procedures followed by traditional healers treating people living with HIV and AIDS in the Instika Municipality and the challenges faced by them in this endeavour. Using the qualitative research method, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with twenty traditional healers. Among the significant findings of this study were the hardships encountered by traditional healers in terms of finance, the transport needed to collect medicinal plants, the shortage of medicinal plants, the lack of co-operation from the formal health care sector and the discrimination and abuse suffered at the hands of members of the community, with Christians and members of the SAPS being among the chief antagonists. It is also acknowledged in this study that traditional healers have been trained by the Department of Health concerning issues of hygiene and that traditional healers have knowledge of the symptoms of HIV and AIDS. It can therefore be concluded that traditional healers have a significant role to play in preventing the spread of HIV and AIDS if they employ preventative measures such as the use of protective gloves and limiting the use of a blade to one patient only. However, traditional healers are not supplied with safety kits or condoms to distribute to patients who consult them for treatment of STIs.

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